What You Need to Know About Mad Cow Disease

When it comes to Mad Cow Disease, its difficult to separate fact from fiction and hard data from supposition. Part of the problem is political and economical, but a lot of it is based on biochemistry. The infectious agent that causes Mad Cow Disease isnt easy to characterize or destroy. Plus, it can be hard to sort through all of the different acronyms used for scientific and medical terms. Heres a summary of what you need to know: What is Mad Cow Disease Mad Cow Disease (MCD) is Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), except that Mad Cow Disease is much easier to pronounce!The disease is caused by prions.Prions can cross between species (although not all species get diseases from them). Cattle get the disease from eating infected food, such as feed that contains rendered parts of infected sheep. Yes, cattle are grazing creatures, but their diets may be supplemented with protein from another animal source.Cattle dont immediately get sick from eating the prions. It can take months or years for Mad Cow Disease to develop. Tell Me About Prions Simply put, prions are proteins that can cause disease.Prions arent alive, so you cant kill them. Proteins can be inactivated by denaturing them (e.g., extreme heat, certain chemical agents), but these same processes usually destroy food, so there isnt an effective method to decontaminate beef.Prions naturally occur in your body, so they are not recognized as foreign and dont stimulate the immune system. They have the potential to cause disease, but wont automatically harm you.Disease-causing prions may physically contact normal prions, altering them so that they too can cause disease. The mechanism of prion action is not well understood. How To Get Mad Cow Disease Technically, you cant get Mad Cow Disease or Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy, because you arent a cow. People who get a disease from exposure to the prion develop a variant of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) known as vCJD. You can develop CJD randomly or from a genetic mutation, completely unrelated to Mad Cow Disease. MCD, BSE, CJD, and vCJD are all members of a class of diseases called transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE).It appears that some people are genetically pre-disposed toward developing TSEs. This means that the risk of contracting the disease is not equal for all people. Some people may be more at risk; others may have natural protection.CJD occurs randomly in about one out of a million people.The inherited version of CJD accounts for about 5-10% of all cases.vCJD may be passed on by tissue implants and theoretically by blood transfusion or blood products. Beef Safety It is not known how much beef has to be eaten to cause infection.Nerve tissue (e.g., brain) and various ground meat products and by-products carry the infectious agents.Muscle tissue (meat) may carry the infectious agent.Rendering or processing foods can (with difficulty) destroy prions.Normal cooking will not destroy prions. What Disease Does in People TSEs, including vCJD, kill neurons in the brain.The diseases have a long incubation period (months to years), so there is a long time between the point of infection and contracting the actual disease.The death of neurons causes the brain to appear like a sponge (areas of open space between groups of cells).All TSEs are presently incurable and fatal.vCJD affects younger patients than CJD (average age 29 years for vCJD, as opposed to 65 years for CJD) and has a longer duration of illness (14 months as opposed to 4.5 months). How To Protect Myself Avoid eating parts of the cow that are likely to carry the infection (brain, ground products, which could include hot dogs, bologna, or certain luncheon meats).Remember that it is possible that muscle may carry the disease, although it would carry the prion in much lower quantities. Its your choice whether to eat beef or not.Milk and milk products are believed to be safe. Be Careful What You Eat Dont eat processed meat from an unknown source. The manufacturer listed on the label is not necessarily the source of the meat. Mad Cow Disease affects the nervous tissue. Until it is known whether only the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) or whether the peripheral nervous system (e.g., nerves that are in muscles) are affected, there may be risk involved in eating any parts of infected beef. That is not to say that eating beef is unsafe! Eating steaks, roasts, or burgers are known to have been made from uninfected herds is perfectly safe. However, it may be harder to know the origins of the meat in processed meat products.

Environmental Scan Paper - 1535 Words

Environmental Scan Paper Christine Jennings MGT/498 Jacqueline Limonta November 17, 2014 Environmental Scan The concept of environmental scanning is important because of the short term and long term success of a company. This tool helps companies scan, monitor, evaluate, and forecast the internal and external parts of the company. In order to obtain an accurate assessment of the internal and external variables of a company, the business managers would have to use a SWOT analysis to develop awareness to different of the company. For example, the company could want to measure consumer behavorior, competitor behavior, and current trends in their marketplace. Environmental Scan and SWOT Analysis The information discovered from†¦show more content†¦After conducting an environmental scan on Nike, this research has discovered that Nike has placed their organization in the best position to sustain their reputation as the world’s leader of athletic shoes and apparel. Nike Incorporated has limited competition because no athletic shoe company can sustain the level of innovation and excellence that Nike has done over the years. A.O. Smith Water Products Company A.O. Smith Water Products Company is one of the world’s leading manufacturers of residential and commercial water heating equipment and technology. Because of the company’s engineering excellence and customer service, A.O. Smith has been able to expand the business operations into more than 60 foreign territories by increasing the development of their water heating equipment by way of innovative technology and acquiring different domestic, global partnerships, and acquisitions. To establish and sustain the success they have already achieved, the business leaders at A.O. Smith implemented a vision that would allow their organization â€Å"to be the global leader in applying innovative technology and energy efficient solutions that provide comfort and convenience to life† (A.O. Smith, 2008). A.O. Smith’s company vision has allowed the organization to net annual sales of $1.49 Billion (2010) and $1.71 Billion (2011) with earnings of $57.3 million and $111.2Show MoreRelatedEnvironmental Scan Paper1539 Words   |  7 PagesEnvironmental Scan Paper MGT/498 July 22, 2015 Environmental Scan Paper The evaluating, monitoring, and disseminating of information from internal and external environments to key people within the corporation is called environmental scanning. (Wheelen and Hunger. 2010) Environmental scanning helps an organization identify relevant factors and use those factors to obtain a competitive advantage within the environment. The author will discuss how an organization creates value and sustainsRead MoreEnvironmental Scan Paper1272 Words   |  6 PagesEnvironmental Scan Paper There are internal and external elements that help a corporation determine their future. Environmental scanning monitors, evaluates, and disseminates the information from both the internal and external environments within the corporation. The internal and external elements are strategic factors that determine the corporation’s future. Environmental scanning can be conducted through a simple SWOT analysisRead MoreEnvironmental Scan Paper1148 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ Environmental Scan Paper Shalunda Lester MGT 498 May 2, 2015 Jerome Dausman Environmental Scan Paper Introduction The monitoring, evaluating, and disseminating of information from the external and internal environments is known as environmental scanning. This information goes to key people within the corporation to identify strategic factors and help determine the future of the corporation (Wheelen Hunger). SWOT analysis is the simplest way to conduct environmental scanning. TheRead MoreEnvironmental Scan Paper1497 Words   |  6 PagesEnvironmental Scan Paper MGT/498 December 10, 2014 Dr. Pamela Linden Environmental Scan Paper Environmental scanning plays a critical role in the strategic management planning process. The environmental scan provides important information, which may be useful in forecasting changes for the future. Environmental scanning is, â€Å"the monitoring, evaluation, and dissemination of information from the external and internal environments to key people within the organization.† (Wheelen and HungerRead MoreEnvironmental Scan Paper1138 Words   |  5 PagesEnvironmental Scan Paper MGT/498 Environmental Scan Paper The business environment of an organization reveals much about its competitiveness and the possible influences on the success of its strategies. The focus of this paper will be an environmental scan of the internal and external environments of two real-world firms, their competitive advantages and company strategies for creating value and sustaining competitiveness, measurement guidelinesRead MoreEthical and Environmental Scan Paper1850 Words   |  8 PagesEthical and Environmental Scan Paper: Enron, Google, Amazon, and Microsoft Ethics and the environmental responsibilities of companies tie directly into those of social responsibilities and occupy a very important position in both incorporating into strategic plans and the company’s value system. In this paper, the subject to describe is how the role of ethics and social responsibility is developed into a company’s strategic plan; this will enclose an example of how Enron initiated an oversteppingRead MoreMgt 498 Week 3 Environmental Scan Paper1112 Words   |  5 PagesEnvironmental Scan Paper Your Name MGT 498 Week 3 Instructor Name Date For any company to survive in the business environment, they must be accustomed toward any situation within the environment because of certain issues, perceptions, chances, and resources. These are such reasons every business must observe any applicable changes, which can occur within the environment and invent from existing policies to adjust toward variations. For any company to succeed the company will need to conquer theRead MoreMgt 498 Week 3 Environmental Scan Paper1099 Words   |  5 PagesEnvironmental Scan Paper Your Name MGT 498 Week 3 Instructor Name Date For any company to survive in the business environment, they must be accustomed toward any situation within the environment because of certain issues, perceptions, chances, and resources. These are such reasons every business must observe any applicable changes, which can occur within the environment and invent from existing policies to adjust toward variations. For any company to succeed the company will need to conquerRead MoreMGT/498 Week Three Individual Environmental Scan Paper1199 Words   |  5 Pages Environmental Scan Paper Craig Clark University Of Phoenix MGT/498 March 9, 2013 Environmental Scan Paper The environment of any organization consists of internal and external factors. An organization should conduct a scan of its environment in order for it to determine development, and a forecast on the factors that may influence the success of the organization. Scanning the environment refers to the possession and utilization of the information that an organization hasRead MoreEnvironmental Scan1153 Words   |  5 PagesMGT 498 Environmental Scan Paper MGT/498 Environmental Scan Paper Environmental scans play a crucial role in the strategic planning process by helping organizations take a look at their competitive advantages and identify ways to sustain the advantages. Wheelen and Hunger (2010) describes environmental scanning as â€Å"the monitoring, evaluation, and dissemination of information from external and internal environments

To what extent is the true of Middleton’s The Revenger’s Tragedy Free Essays

string(248) " Castiza to prostitute herself, as the ‘depth of \[his\] self-deception’ and although of course he is happy when she rejects his offers, the ‘image of a noble self we see in flashes is not restored in the end’ \(1986:146\)\." ‘Sternly moral and strangely perverse’ (Schoenbaum 1955:6), The Revenger’s Tragedy explores the ethical complexities of the revenger figure, Vindice, through his determination to take vengeance upon the lecherous Duke. The very nature of revenge tragedy shows an inversion of the morality play, in which the protagonist would face a series of temptations and ultimately choose a virtuous life over one of evil. Revenge plays on the other hand invariably include; secret murders and plots, disguises, violence and catastrophe, all of which are presented in The Revenger’s Tragedy, but also within the character of Vindice. We will write a custom essay sample on To what extent is the true of Middleton’s The Revenger’s Tragedy? or any similar topic only for you Order Now He is not, however, the soul revenger in the play. Irving Ribner lists nine different situations which involve revenge (1962:80) and therefore it is not surprising that some critics argue that Middleton’s1 work should be more accurately named ‘The Revengers’ Tragedy’ (Adams 1965:61). In order for Vindice, and the other malicious characters, to exact revenge, they must enter the world of their enemy, to achieve maximum devastation from the inside out; ’embracing evil in a vain attempt to destroy evil’ (Ribner 1962:80). Is this, therefore, the real tragedy of the revenger, insofar as the revenger must debase himself to the level of his adversary, in order to punish him? In the opening scene of the play, Vindice holds his dead fiancie’s skull in his hand and vows to get his revenge on the Duke who attempted to seduce her and subsequently poisoned her. In terms of a revenge plot, this appears very straightforward – an ‘eye for eye’ (Exodus 21:24) vengeance, but this becomes more complex with the sacrifices that Vindice has to make. Initially, he must find an entrance into court which is achieved by becoming pander to the Duke’s son, Lussurioso. Having previously left the court after his father’s death, merely becoming involved in this society again is a compromise, exposing him to the corruption he so readily criticises. Perhaps the audience is supposed to be impressed at Vindice’s restraint, being so close to an enemy and not striking immediately, though it is this determination which ultimately turns him villain from hero. As Bowers states, ‘only rather villainous revengers are presented as waiting such a period. †¦ ] No normal, sympathetic person by Elizabethan standards would harbour his wrath for such a time and withstand the promptings of religion for forgiveness’ (1959:136n. ) Being under Lussurioso’s command, Vindice’s escape from the planned revenge is not so easy and it could be maintained that his fate is sealed from the start; not only must he kill the Duke, but his son as well. Under his guise as Piato, meaning â€Å"plated† (Neill 1996:404), Vindice sinks further into tyranny by accepting money from Lussurioso, and presumably also from the Duke, for his work. Perhaps he had no choice in this acceptance, and therefore again, Vindice’s fate is marked. Neill notes the suitability of the name Piato and its associations with the repeated ‘coin’ image throughout the play. As a man in disguise, Vindice is the embodiment of the ‘deceptive glitter of the whole court’; he has become the â€Å"blanched† coin, a ‘base metal plated over with silver to improve its appearance’ (Neill 1996:404). In adopting this costume, Vindice becomes consumed by the traits he puts upon himself, and poisoning the Duke completes this conversion. Piato and Vindice become, characteristically as well as physically, the same person. Murray warns that ‘the name and the disguise are intended to fool Lussurioso, but we should not be fooled into seeing a contradiction of character where none in fact exists’ (1964:214 original emphasis). ‘The crucial transformations in the play are effected by poisoning, figurative or literal’ and the literal poisoning of the Duke is reflected in the figurative poisoning of Vindice’s mind and character (Murray 1964:196). Although he has now completed his revenge plan, Vindice forgets his original purpose and not content with ‘the death of †¦ his logical victim, must scourge from court all his vicious progeny’ (Bowers 1959:133). In losing focus of his initial goal, ‘Puh, ’tis but early yet†¦ ‘ (III. V. 171), Vindice aligns himself with the Duke, whose own aim had been to seduce Gloriana, but resulted in poisoning and ultimately murdering her. Murray argues that Vindice’s ‘degeneration’ can be followed through ‘subtle changes’ in his attitude toward Gloriana and her skull (1965:124). After this episode, Gloriana is hardly mentioned and Vindice has reduced her to a similar level to himself; dressing up her skull, creating falseness, an ironic comparison with Vindice himself, as well the courtiers, having heavily painted or masked faces. This mask image is repeated with the masque at the close of the play, in which Vindice carries out his last gruesome acts in yet another disguise. The movement from simple costume to the masque brutality is a perfect example of the shift in Vindice’s character. From this moment he is ‘never shown hesitating at the thought of violence’ and as is noted by many critics, ‘no-one else in the major tragedies of the period goes to such extremes of takes such delight in the doing on violence on an enemy’ – Vindice embodies the ‘spirit of violence’ (McAlindon 1986:140). Through the enjoyment and pleasure of violence, Vindice loses all focus, control and rationality. Murray’s argument that ‘[Vindice’s] moral perception is blinded at the moment when disillusion cuts through to his sexual obsession, and he is driven to sadistic revenges’ (1964:223) is another example of Vindice turning tyrant, by becoming the lecherous man he has despised for so many years. Vindice almost sexualises Gloriana’s decorated skull, ‘†¦ methinks I could e’en chide myself / For doting on her beauty’ (III. V. 68-9) and he revels in the ingenuity of his revenge on the Duke, though he does not realise that ‘it destroys the moral value of Gloriana’s martyrdom, making a whore and a murderess of her’ (Murray 1965:218). His lust even extends to his own sister and in trying to tempt her to court, Vindice has some of his most poetic and well-reasoned lines: ‘Why are there so few honest women but because ’tis the / poorer profession? ‘ (II. I. 225-6). McAlindon sees Vindice’s plea to Castiza to prostitute herself, as the ‘depth of [his] self-deception’ and although of course he is happy when she rejects his offers, the ‘image of a noble self we see in flashes is not restored in the end’ (1986:146). You read "To what extent is the true of Middleton’s The Revenger’s Tragedy?" in category "Papers" The play’s moral dilemma is of course that Gratiana and Castiza can enjoy the riches too, if they agree to become corrupted (Salinger 1982:242). In his discussions with Lussurioso, Vindice again displays this side of his personality. The audience cannot help but draw comparisons between Vindice, the Duke and also his lecherous son, in the manner that he describes lust and sexual depravity: ‘I have been witness / To the surrenders of a thousand virgins’ (I. III. 49-50). Vindice’s arguments seem to flow all too easily, ‘premeditated’ (Ornstein 1954:85) perhaps and convince his mother within seventy lines. Nicholas Brooke argues that his decision to carry out this ‘project’ has its ‘own perversity’, as his rage turns to ‘excitement’ and a ‘delight in the paradox’ (1979:15) which leads him to a dangerous resolve, ‘to try the faith of both’ (I. III. 177). Although his asides show some regret for his actions, ‘Not, I hope, already? ‘ and ‘I e’en quake to proceed’ (II. I. 104, 109), Vindice appears to continue his persuasion with little further thought on the matter. Later, when he decides to punish, and almost take revenge, on his own mother for agreeing to Castiza’s prostitution, Vindice exhibits some of his most morally disturbing behaviour by Elizabethan standards. Gibbons notes that ‘in a society where parental authority was so strong, a parent’s submission to a child was a deep and disturbing breach of custom’ (1992:88n) and the image of Hippolito and Vindice either side of their mother, presumably with weapons, is almost a direct parallel of the way in which the brothers handle the Duke: ‘Nail down his tongue, and mine shall keep possession / About his heart’ (III. V. 193-4). This can be viewed symbolically where Vindice must, for his own satisfaction, kill the ‘heart’ and perform psychological torment, by showing the Duke his wife and son together. It could be argued that it is this image that kills the Duke. As his next target, the murder of Lussurioso must, of course, out do the death of the Duke, despite his reasoning being less substantial. To get his change however, Vindice must now become himself and is hired to kill ‘Piato’. This symbolism releases Vindice of all mental guilt, as it allows him not only to re-enact his killing of the Duke, but also stabbing the image of himself pushes him further into the ‘manic glee’ (Brooke 1979:25) of the revenger character. Neill sees this episode as if Vindice were ‘facing the image of his death’ (1997:84), a form of premonition to his inevitable downfall and death at the end of the play. For the audience, this image of Vindice killing â€Å"himself† is ironic, and the idea of arranging the corpse in a lifelike way is a shocking mirror of the ‘bony lady’ (III. V. 120) Gloriana. With this gesture intended to separate the characters of Piato and Vindice, this actually brings them together as one, though Vindice fails to see this, as does Hippolito who says ‘In thine own shape now I’ll prefer thee to him’ (IV. I. 60) Vindice constantly makes the distinction between the characters; ‘am I far enough from myself? ‘ (I. III. 1), he asks, when first dressing as Piato, and later he claims his alter ego to be ‘a witch’ (V. III. 121). Although this is a popular argument, critics such as Heather Hirschfield disagree, stating that Vindice is enacting a quest for ‘self-disclosure’ and is ‘less about obtaining an impossible justice and more about orchestrating scenes that allow him to proclaim his own sinfulness’ (2005:113). She argues that by putting himself in situations which allow him to give rise to someone new and pure through self destruction, Vindice is actually not looking revenge at all, merely a passage to a better life. With his final confession, Vindice hopes to attain this cleansing, however this moment of self-revelation ‘shipwreck[s] him on the very sinful self that confession is meant to overcome’, and perhaps this is a critique of ‘hollow’ Catholic penitence (Hirschfield 2005:113). Irving Ribner agrees with this view, arguing that ‘Heaven is responsible for Vindice’s fall, but heaven’s instrument is time, which changes all, and reduces life to death’ (1962:77-8). It could be said therefore, that the tragedy of the revenger, is not his debasement to the level of tyrant, but his impatience for exacting his revenge, and the ‘failure of his faith in heaven’ (Ribner 1962:80). Vindice fails to recognise and embrace the ‘inevitability of divine retribution’ and the ‘self-destructive quality of evil’ and by believing that he fully understood and was in control of himself, ultimately lost grip on his moral identity (Ribner 1962:75). At times Vindice seems somewhat irrelevant to the plotline in having no ‘clear-cut opponent’ and being out of control of the majority of the action. In the masque scene, for example, the deaths of Ambitioso, Supervacuo and Spurio have ‘no indication’ that they were anything more than an ‘unexpected accident’ (Bowers 1959: 136,7) in which Vindice was simply an innocent bystander. Vindice, however, is not the only revenger in the play and the most notable other is Lussurioso when trying to take revenge upon Piato. He mirrors, albeit unwittingly, the masking and lying that ‘Piato’ had displayed, in being untruthful about the reasons he wants revenge. Lussurioso claims that Piato had disobeyed his commands and attempted to seduce Castiza for himself using jewels. Ironically, this is just what Vindice had done, on Lussurioso’s behalf, yet he fails to see this paradox, and is simply angered at the falsehood. Supervacuo, Ambitioso and Spurio try to take revenge on each other, as well as their elder brother. Again, they lower themselves to each other’s level, climbing over one another in an attempt to become the next Duke. It could also be argued that Antonio has the final revenge, on Vindice, by condemning him to death. Is, therefore, Antonio as guilty as Vindice? Throughout the play he is described as ‘discontented’ (I. V. sd) at the death of his wife, rather than grieving, which is a term usually associated with the character of the malcontent; Lussurioso claims that ‘discontent and want / Is the best clay to mould a villain’ (IV. I. 48-9) Antonio, like Vindice, is deaf to the truth, condemning Gentleman1 for allowing the Duke to leave the court alone. It is ironic, perhaps, that Antonio’s sufferi ngs are so alike to Vindice’s yet he condemns him still. The nature of the relationship between Vindice and Antonio is described by Machiavelli: †¦ hat whoever is responsible for another’s becoming powerful ruins himself, because this power is brought into being either by ingenuity or force, and both of these are suspect to the one who has become powerful (1532:15) In punishing Vindice and Hippolito, Antonio protects himself. Again, conceivably Vindice’s fate was sealed from the very beginning, in that by allowing Antonio to become Duke as a consequence, he became in danger. It is possible then, that the ‘blazing star’ (V. III. sd) looming over the banquet and masque, marks Vindice’s fate, rather than Lussurioso’s. He knows it is useless to argue against Antonio, who is ‘tainted because he shares [the brothers’] guilt’ (Murray 1964:228); ‘Vindice loathes vice, but he has no faith in virtue’ (Ornstein 1954:86). Justice seems to be lacking at the end, just as at the beginning of the play and as a result, Vindice’s work seems futile. In conclusion, it can strongly be argued that Vindice turns tyrant to punish tyranny and that from this guise he is not redeemable. However whether this is the tragedy of the revenger is still debateable. Perhaps rather, the tragedy is that Vindice could not keep up his performance, his act, long enough to succeed or even take the Duke’s seat for himself. In playing himself rather than Piato, and in his confession in the final scene, Vindice metaphorically admits to being taken in by the court that is ‘so given up to evil’ and despite an ‘intense awareness of his own sin’, he cannot save himself (Murray 1964:192,215). By the close of the play, the audience come to the realisation that ‘those who seek justice are no less corrupted than those who seek sensual pleasure or power’ (Murray 1964:228). It is impossible, however to align Vindice with the â€Å"tragic hero† character, as though despite his admittance, he fails to achieve ‘self-knowledge’ and ‘he amuses himself and us so much †¦ he seems incapable of suffering and inner conflict’ (Ribner 1986:151). Through the enjoyment and gratification in the deaths and violence, Vindice’s confession comes to nothing. He does not argue for forgiveness or try and show his regret but merely accepts that †tis time to die when we ourselves are foes’ (V. III. 112). Peter Murray argues that Vindice is one of the more ‘believable portraits of neurotic perversion in all of Jacobean drama’ and therefore the ways in which he evolves as a character is truly accurate to reality (1964:247). Can therefore, turning tyrant really be Vindice’s tragedy, if any other character would have come to the same fate? ‘It is worth remembering that death is what we commonly expect at the end of a revenge tragedy’ and Middleton simply alters the normal style of the close of a revenge play. In showing Vindice’s lack of self-recognition, the audience would leave the theatre with a ‘particular sense of imperfection’ (Ribner 1962:86). The tragedy of the revenger then, is not that Vindice has turned tyrant, but that he represents everyman, and in allowing oneself to be consumed with rage, desire and lust, every one of us would come to the same fate. Vindice does not realise that he has become the butt of his own joke; Lussurioso sought to hire a villain, and he succeeded. How to cite To what extent is the true of Middleton’s The Revenger’s Tragedy?, Papers

Corporate Social Responsibilities and Business Ethics

Question: Do Codes of business Ethics Really work'? Answer: Perhaps working in corporate world, shows the sense of social responsibilities,values and ethics of the person working in it. There are some famous wordings by various people working in different parts of corporate world about the social responsibilities but the common thought which comes out of all of it is We may pretend that we are basically moral people who make mistakes, but the whole of the history proves otherwise.i.e. it comes out to be a confusing outcome after noticing all the definitions, methods and samples.As we talk about the business ethics, ethics is a set of principles of the right conduct it has been defined as a set of values and principle which helps guide behavior, choice and actions. It helps to decide whether ones actions are right or wrong. It is said in An introduction to business ethics by Joseph Desjardins , he shows a unique multidisciplinary approach which offers critical; analysis and integrates the perspective of philosophy with management, law , econom ics and public policy, providing a clear , concise , yet reasonably comprehensive introductory survey of the ethical choices available to us in business 2013. According to him, ethics are based upon individual morals/ values and social context. Although ethics reflect a combination of individual values, morals and culture. Organizations can signicantly impact ethical decision makings by:-1. Written codes of conduct/ ethics.2. Ethics programs.3. Ethics hotline.4. Leadership by example. Social responsibility of the people in the corporate world is a key to know how the task is being performed as it is assigned to them particularly, it is the basic foundation of the human interaction. Professionals are required to perform their work to high ethical standards and always in consideration of and to the benefit of the public (Reynolds, 2006). The social responsibility of business is to increase its profits and in keeping with the view that environmental corporate social responsibility generates new and competitive resources for firms and on the other hand if the firm behave irresponsibly then it face a significant decrease in stock prices and other things too. It express the way how company fundamentally behaves towards the society. This further helps in showing the ethical behavior of the firm towards the customers and the stack holders and reorganizes the spirit of legal and regulatory environment.As we see ethical changes form the ancient times , the main varieties of modern ethics is the transition from medieval to modern culture, during the renaissance , was marked by a revival of classical humanism and naturalism, which proceeded to critical reconstruction in the ethical theory. The men of renaissance turned enthusiastically to the ideas and ideals of classical antiquity. Every school of ancient philosophy had its early modern disciplines. Stoicism was revived, likewise the Aristotelians of the lyceum, not the Thomist theological adaptation. Marsilio ficino(1433-1499) and others hoped to achieve a philosophical religion and ethics by a blend of Christianity with Plato and Plotinus. More radically opposed to the medieval ascetic piety, Lorenzo Valla (1406-1457) espoused the Epicurean pursuit of pleasure as mas chief and true good. Having cut loose the bonds of dogmatic authority, men felt dismayed in their quest of a reliable standard. This tragic quandary may be sensed as an undertone in the ethical writings of Giordano Bruno (1548- 1600). It finds intense utterance in the Pensees of Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), but before the Pascal it had expressed without any tragic note in the skepticism of Montaigne(1533-1592). In ethics as in general philosophy, the first major problem of the modern mankind was the problem of a reliable method. What is the source and what is the standard of moral judgment in our relative appraisal of the values of human experience and conduct? Ethical theories are most broadly distinguished as teleological ethics and formal rigorism. Formal rigorism. Formal rigorism is the ethics of duty and upright will. It tests the moral value of an act by considering the motive or the inner spirit of the agent. The results of an action are often beyond our control. Moral judgment must be concerned with the man himself, with the principle on which he proposes to act. An action is morally good only if the principle which is manifested in it is right (Reynolds, 2006).The ethics of uprightness is opposed to more usu al so called teleological theories of ethics which evaluate the moral worth of actions by appraisal of their consequences: By their fruits ye shall know them. Teleological ethics may proceed in several directions. We evaluate an act by its consequences: what consequences, namely? The principle answers to this question have been two, with a third theory of more recent advocacy. Thus hedonism judges an action to be good if it yields pleasure of leads to happiness. Perfectionism evaluates the moral worth of an act if it serves to realize the harmonious perfection of our capacities and leads to fulfillment of personality. The widespread influence of the doctrine of evolution has found expression in the evolutionary theory of ethics, which appraises conduct in terms of its survival value vitality. We shall examine the above four varieties of ethical doctrine in their historical development in the modern thought. Basically there are moral issues in business which has four part. These are:-1. Moral philosophy and business.2. Business and its basis3. Business and society4. The organization and the people in it.In the first part is it said that about the nature of morality and presents the main theories of normality ethics and leading approaches to questions of economic justice. In the second part it said about the institution foundation of business, focusing on capitalism as an economic system and the nature and the role of corporations in our society. In the third part it is said about the moral problems involving business consumers and the natural environment. And in the fourth part it identifies a variety of ethical issues and moral challenges that arise out of the interplay of employees with an organization, including the problem of discrimination (Reynolds, 2006). On the other side when the unethical behavior is discussed the stories of business corruption and of greed and wrong doing comes in picture. As we take the examples of Kenneth ley who was convicted by jury of conspiracy and multiple count s of fraud, he was the CEO of Enron group. The company was once the seventh largest company of America and Fortune magazine voted the Most Innovative Company continuously from last six years. Then with the time it was declare a bankrupt company. This kind of unethical behavior leads the hype on which it was built made a crashing end.There is one other example of unethical behavior of some pharmaceutical companies of America in terms of marketing strategies. In advertising a product and their unnatural interaction with healthcare people is making the phRMA (Pharmaceutical research and manufactures of America) code ineffective. An independent research studies shows that seven renowned drug manufacturing companies violated the code. It revealed that in appropriate tactics and through prominent health care people by promoting medicines uses which are not approved by U.S Food and Drug administration (FDA).Ethic is therefore associated directly to the family and social upbringing and how the society and culture observe a process of approach. Its common to find certain behavior being considered to be a vice in certain cultures while in others is welcomes and considered normal.This observed among the Politician cultures where theft is not observed in a negative way and considered a normal practice among the traditional locals who didnt borrow and instead stole. Again when the person required the item they would intern steal it from another person. This clearly demonstrates the differences between cultural outlooks which will affect the way ethics is observed. In business ethics would constitute to a totally different aspect and usually entail the consumer demand as well as the social responsibilities linked to local communities and the environment.But it once again goes much deeper than this since most people seek to solve the problem they know but down realize there are many major issues linked to the problem which may show up decades after certain actions have been done. these factors also contribute towards social responsibility and business ethics but seldom discussed since these aspects are indirect and maintain experienced after long periods of time.An example of such as misunderstood social responsibility linked to recycling where communities are asked to recycle their waste. While most of us are working hard towards sorting the waste for proper recycling, details linked to the recycling process remain unclear to the co nsumer. Recycling has been identifying to consumer almost the same energy as fresh development and while it may reduce pressure on natural resource and waste disposal, it still does not address the problem linked to energy management and proper utilization.There is also another example of misunderstood social responsibility linked to energy production and management. while government and companies work hard to advertise how people can save energy via the use of energy saving florescent and LED lights and technology, few offer true advice on free energy production solutions such a solar and energy solution. These technologies have greatly been advances in recent years and offer reliable sources of electrical energy for free. By simply promoting these forms of energy production its possible to cut down 70% of energy consumed on lighting and small appliances powering thus allowing the power plants to concentrate high voltage power towards industry and heavy consumption. This also helps cut energy consumption costs for small appliances and lighting by 70-80% for the consumer (Lim, 2000).The above examples clearly demonstrate corporate social responsibility as well as business ethics and offer a clear demonstration of how ethics vary and must be viewed. Its important to observe the wider picture linked to social responsibility and also consider long term effects to the society, and environment. today many decision taken 3 to decade back with the intention of benefiting the local communities have turned to be viewed as ecological and health disasters. A perfect example of this is seen on Nile where there has been a constant schistosomiasis outbreak (bilharzia) since the construction of the Aswan Dam. This has been directly associated to the Dam blocking the migratory breed route of the fresh water shrimp. The shrimp are responsible for consuming the snails in the water which carryschistosomiasis.This has been experienced on several rivers across the globe where dams block fish migration routs leading up to serious health concerns. With the case of the schistosomiasis outbreak the shrimp are unable to migrate and breed resulting in a decline in their numbers and an increase in snail numbers. This has led to automatically increasing the number of schistosomiasis cases recorded on rivers in recent year.But the problem doesnt stop as finding the causebut also involves finding a solution to this problem.Hydroelectric dams have grown to become a basic necessity for every nation energy supply making it a tricky decision to find a solutio n where both medical needs as well as development needs are addressed.Clearly there is a major problems linked to meeting both the economic as well as social and ethical requirements in todays business and social world (Rest,1989).Many of the problem facing societies are linked the rapid growth experienced during the past 60 years. During this time rapid development was underway resulting in corporate industriesdeveloping but also not having time to observe social responsibility and ethical issues. Today with more education and awareness linked to business ethics and social responsibilities businesses are developing new strategies which address these problems. at the same time the communities and professionals are also addressing the concerns affecting them resulting in a better understanding on the problems experienced in the past and how they can be resolved in the future. Every aspect linked to business ethics and social responsibility requires to be observed and discussed thus e nsuring business, environment and humanitarian concerns are all addressed. References: 1. Rest, J. R. (1989). Development in judging moral issues. U of Minnesota Press.2. Chia, A., Lim, S. M. (2000). The effects of issue characteristics on the recognition of moral issues. Journal of Business Ethics, 27(3), 255-269.3. Reynolds, S. J. (2006). Moral awareness and ethical predispositions: investigating the role of individual differences in the recognition of moral issues.Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(1), 233.4. Waters, J. A., Bird, F., Chant, P. D. (1986). Everyday moral issues experienced by managers. Journal of Business Ethics, 5(5), 373-384.5. Beauchamp, T. L., Bowie, N. E., Arnold, D. G. (Eds.). (2004). Ethical theory and business.

Health Care Ethics Issue of Stem Cell Research free essay sample

Bringing to light ethical considerations and understanding multiple learning outcomes are paramount to comprehending elements of this topic. Adult stems cells are a special type of undifferentiated cell (a cell that is not specialized) that is found among differentiated cells in a tissue or organ system that can regenerate into some of the specialized cell type of that tissue or organ system. In short, adult stem cells are meant to sustain and restore the tissue or organ system they are designated. They are thought to exist in most of the body’s tissues such as the blood, brain, liver, intestine or skin. If the differentiations of adult stem cells are able to be manifested in the setting of the laboratory, adult stem cells may become the basis of transplantation-based therapies. The other type of stem cell research is over the human embryonic stem cell. The embryonic stem cells exist at the most early stages of embryonic growth and then form all of the types of cells of the human body. We will write a custom essay sample on Health Care Ethics Issue of Stem Cell Research or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Typically in the human development these embryonic cells are not found after roughly five days. The capability to form so many types of different cells, the embryonic stem cell is also known as pluriptotent stem cell. These cells have an almost wonder like potential but scientists today are unable to specifically control their development into different types of cells in the body. The issues arise on the subject of embryonic stem cell research. The controversy resides over the creation of, usage, and destruction of the human embryos for stem cell research. The opposition to embryonic stem cell research brings claims to the issue such as; * The use or destruction of human embryos for stem cell research is a deep violation in the right to human life and no regard toward autonomy of the unborn life. * There are other alternatives such as adult stem cell research. * All of the potential that embryonic stem cell research is capable of is just that, potential. There is no actual proof that the potential can be realized. Human trials have begun but have yet to yield significant proof of effectiveness and need more trials (Walsh, 2012). These claims make a strong point for the opposition. On the reverse the supporters of embryonic stem cell research make the claims of; * They have the possibility of better treatment and could cure a number of diseases and defects * They could be made to produce new organs without the need for transplant * The outcome of the success they would make would outweigh the ethical issues * The embryo is no more of a â€Å"life† than a flake of skin. As seen, both sides have clear and strong points for their position. James Thomson in 1998 at the University of Wisconsin was able to successfully remove cells from left-over embryos at different fertility clinics and grew more cells from them in a laboratory (UK Stem Cell Foundation, 2011). This was the most significant first step in embryonic stem cell research in its history. After Thomson’s success, this opened the door to many researches claiming that embryonic stem cells are capable to generate cells in many types of tissues or organs. Since the discovery in 1998, thousands of studies and published research has covered scientific journals each year. A large question raised in the issue of stem cell research is that of autonomy. The principle of autonomy involves recognizing the right of a person to make one’s own decisions (Pozgar, 2012). This enables a person to have the clear cut decision about what is best for themselves. This is recognized in the 14th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. What makes the principle of autonomy a compelling agreement in the case against embryonic stem cells research is that autonomy is only relative to self or in other words, the actions of autonomy of one person can’t prohibit the same rights from another person. Embryonic stem cell collections occur at about the 5 to 7 day range after conception (Stojkovic, 2004). Nearly all of the opposition to embryonic stem cell research identifies the moment of conception as the moment life begins. Supporters of embryonic stem cell research claim otherwise because the human cells at that point are not capable of sustaining life on their own and have no defining organ or human systems or identity. The start of life is currently unable to be defined. With the start of life in question, isn’t he right of autonomy in question for these human embryonic cells? That being stated in the interest of autonomy, wouldn’t the continuing of the research without a true definition to life a blow against the ethical consideration of autonomy? In Article Three of the United Nation’s â€Å"Universal Declaration of Human Rights† is states that, â€Å"Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. † CITE. In 2007, The Unite d States’ Supreme Court ruled that is was illegal in America to perform partial-birth abortions (NRLC, 2007). This was based on the fact that Congress determined that the abortion methods it proscribed had a disturbing similarity to the killing of a newborn infant. The combination of these two gives a growing insight that not being â€Å"born†, a human still has legal rights. The fore mentioned government ruling over partial-birth abortions did not over step the boundaries of the legality of Roe v. Wade (1973) but it did bring further consideration toward the life of an unborn child. The basis of this law was made because of the viability of the fetus in â€Å"live birth† scenarios. Science and supporters of human embryonic stem cells are quick to note that these cells are unable to self-sustain therefore are not considered worth having rights, but what if science was able to enable these cells to self sustain into a viable life? After all, the whole potential of curing diseases and manifesting these cells to form a specific body cell resides on â€Å"what if† as well. Considering the legal rights of individuals interacting with health care services, it is safe to say that it is in the dark as to what rights the unborn has. The ethical principles of Autonomy, Non-maleficence, Beneficience, and Justice come into mind when the issues of human embryonic stem cell debate come up. As mentioned earlier in this paper, the principle of autonomy is in question for the right of the human embryo. Non-maleficence is held in obligation to refrain from harming another person unless there is an extraordinary circumstance such as the instance of self-defense against harm (The Curators of the University of Missouri Cell Foundation, 2007). Providers in health care are held to an obligation not to harm patients outside of the long-term benefit procedures and treatment will bring. The destruction of human embryonic stem cells for the purpose of research and/or treatment proves invalid because of the current lack of definition of â€Å"life† by legal systems. The principle of beneficence is to do good for each other. Specifically the provider and patient relationship are relevant in health care. In the case of abortion of a conceived embryonic stem cell for research gains is under question. Does this really benefit of the woman who carries the conceived cell? What opportunity does this deprive of the conceived cell to develop into a human? Is there any real gain prevent the conceived cell from a pregnancy with the woman whom it is carried by? Does the mother have any implications toward carrying out the pregnancy? These answer to these questions must be fully met and all collectively one sided to ensure that beneficence for both the life of the mother and potential life are ensured. Justice of a person in whole should be equal world-wide. What is fair and who defines fairness is relative to situation, persons, nations, cultures, and morals.

Pythagorean Triples Essays - Diophantine Equations, Equations

Pythagorean Triples Essays - Diophantine Equations, Equations Pythagorean Triples Pythagorean Triples Three integers a, b, and c that satisfy a2 + b2 = c2 are called Pythagorean Triples. There are infinitely many such numbers and there also exists a way to generate all the triples. Let n and m be integers, n*m. Then define(*) a = n2 - m2, b = 2nm, c = n2 + m2. The three number a, b, and c always form a Pythagorean triple. The proof is simple: (n2 - m2)2 + (2mn)2 = n4 - 2n2m2 + m4 + 4n2m2 = n4 + 2n2m2 + m4 = (n2 + m2)2. The formulas were known to Euclid and used by Diophantus to obtain Pythagorean triples with special properties. However, he never raised the question whether in this way one can obtain all possible triples.The fact is that for m and n coprime of different parities, (*) yields coprime numbers a, b, and c. Conversely, all coprime triples can indeed be obtained in this manner. All others are multiples of coprime triples: ka, kb, kc.As an aside, those who mastered the arithmetic of complex numbers might have noticed that (m + in)2 = (n2 - m2) + i2mn. Which probably indicates that (*) has a source in trigonometry. But the proof below only uses simple geometry and algebra.First of all, note that if a2 + b2 = c2, then (a/c)2 + (b/c)2 = 1. With x = a/c and y = b/c we get x2 + y2 = 1. This is the well known equation of the unit circl e with center at the origin. Finding Pythagorean triples is therefore equivalent to locating rational points (i.e., points (x,y) for which both x and y are rational) on the unit circle. For if (p/q)2 + (r/s)2 = 1, multiplication by a common denominator leads to an identity between integers.Rational numbers approximate irrational to any degree of accuracy. Therefore, the set of rational pairs is dense in the whole plane. So, perhaps, one might expect that any curve should contain a lot of rational pairs or meander wildly to avoid them. But this is not the case. The recent proof of Fermat's Last Theorem lets us claim that the curves xN + yN = 1 with N*2 contain no rational points. But there are simpler examples. From Lindemann's theorem, we conclude that the graph of a perfectly smooth function y = ex contains a single rational point, (0,1). Moreover, pulling the unit circle even a little aside may change the picture drastically. Let (xk, yk) = ( 2/k, 3/k), and consider a unit circle with center at (xk, yk). As k grows, the point approaches the origin, but for no k, such a circle contains a rational point.Let t be defined by(1) t = y/(x+1). Then t(x+1) = y andt2(x + 1)2 = y2 = 1 - x2 = (1 + x)(1 - x). We are not interested in negative x. So let's cancel (1+x) on both sides. The result ist2(x + 1) = (1 - x). Solving for x we get(2) x = (1 - t2)/(1 + t2) From y = t(1+x) we also obtain(3) y = 2t/(1 + t2) Formula (1)-(3) show that t is rational iff both x and y are rational.There is another way to look at the just described configuration.The configuration consists of the unit circle centered at the origin and a straight line passing through the point (-1,0) which lies on the circle. Unless the line is tangent to the circle, the two have a second common point. In order to find this point, we have to solve simultaneously two equations: the quadratic equation of the circle x2 + y2 = 1 and the linear equation of the line. By eliminating either x or y from the latter, and substituting the result into the former, we get a quadratic equation in one variable with integer coefficients. One solution of this equation is immediate - it is related to the point (-1,0), and is rational. Therefore, the second solution of the equation is also rational and gives either x- or y-coordinate of the second point of intersection. (3,4,5), (5,12,13), (6,8,10), (7,24,25), (8,15,17), (9,12,15), (9,40,41), (10,24,26), (11,60,61), (12,16,20), (12,35,37), (13,84,85), (14,48,50), (15,20,25), (15,36,39), (15,112,113), (16,30,34), (16,63,65),

White paper on environmental friendly cars Research

White on environmental friendly cars - Research Paper Example As life kept going, different inventions took birth that enraptured the world. As a consequence, in the late 1600’s the first steam-powered vehicle was built. This led to the birth of a sequence of different generations of automobiles. Since the Industrial Revolution in 1760, fossil fuels replaced manual manufacturing processes, and in consequence of this car engines had started to be produced so as to run on the combustion of fossil fuels. For many years, even to this day, this has continued; initially the world had not known what unprecedented effect the excessive burning of fossil fuels would produce, but in the 1960’s a new discovery was made: this was Global Warming. This led environmentalists and scientists to thoroughly exhaust the subject and conclude that the excessive burning of fossil fuels is verily causing climate changes all over the world, and so it befitted the term ‘Global Warming’ (Sperling et al, 2009). In addition to this, it is also wor th noting that fossil fuels are non-renewable resources and a time shall come when the world will run out of fossil fuels, or that only the powerful will exert their absolute control over it on their own whim. In effect, the world or the poor nations, in the future years, might have to revert to former methods of transportation; that are bicycles, horses, carts, etc. When this implication was realized by environmentalists yet again, scientists again dove down and exhausted every source through which they could determine how to endure fuel shortages and still have automobiles. This has led to a breakthrough invention that can completely solve this problem. In reality the use of fuel-powered cars has never been easy for the general population. Only the wealthy have the means in current times to drive such cars. This is because several problems accompany the use of fuel-powered cars that heap heavily on a consumer with a moderate salary and a not-so-ostentatious lifestyle: one, they are expensive; this

Research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 18

Research Paper Example There are several risks factors that have a strong influence over the global business among which some of the risks includes terrorism and violence. Apart from that, there are some other factors that have a strong ability to affect business such as Political and social activist. It has been noticed through the time that terrorism and violence bring the eminent impact on the business. It has been discussed in the book by making use of different examples that terrorism and violence have direct and indirect impacts on the business in terms of trade flow. There are several reasons due to which terrorist target business. Terrorists target the visible companies in order to get media’s attention. When a company gets attacked, it directly disrupts its economic process and production that directly or indirectly influence the different areas of the country. However, business can also influence by political or social activist. It can bring diverse impacts on the global market it can affe ct the any global business in different forms such as through, product boycott, and statements to the press, regulatory enforcement and different Internet campaigns. There are different examples have been discussed below that justify the above concept of risk in business. Terrorism enforces different effects on the business and economy of the county and the similar incident has been noted in Nigeria. Northern Nigeria has faced the similar incidents of terror and violence with a very great intensity. It has influenced Nigeria in different terms such as Foreign Exchange earnings, balance of payment, financial market, economic condition and tourism. The main aim behind the terrorism in Nigeria is to ruin the stability and security forces such as by intimidating people, and their targeted places include school, shopping centers, cafeterias and restaurants in Nigeria. It particularly denotes that terrorism is a serious threat to the country interest, and

Constitutional Administrative Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Constitutional Administrative Law - Essay Example This supranational policy has greatly affected the sovereignty of member states. The attainment of the United Kingdom (UK) to the European Communities (EC) membership forces it to effect community law in the country. This paper will critically analyse and evaluate how the United Kingdom courts have initiated the community law effectiveness over principles of domestic law, parliamentary sovereignty inclusive. Evaluation of the UK Courts achievements Chief sources of community law emanate from the secondary and primary legislations, which bind the member nations onto the law’s subject. Primary legislation comprises of amendments treaties, accession treaties and original treaties. Secondary legislation is composed of laws formed in treaties accordance. Sovereignty is unrestrained political powers that enacts and makes laws in national parliaments that are neither suspended nor overridden by any other body of institution. The EC Act in 1972 stipulated that the UK had novel sources of law as from the 1st of January 1973(Steiner & Woods 2006, p.72). As highlighted earlier, these sources are the treaties or primary laws of the European communities and the secondary laws legislations. ECJ rulings have a greater implication on the English law. European community is concerned with laws from various sources such as; education, health, consumer policy, competition, companies, fishing and agriculture, free movement of goods and workers, and environment. However, it has no competencies in social and economic areas of the United Kingdom. UK courts have apprehended community law over principles underlying national laws including sovereignty of the parliament by enacting the principle of supremacy and direct effect which have greatly affected the legal system of Britain (Beatson 1998, p. 47). As highlighted by Turpin (2007, p. 41), the UK’s establishment of sovereignty is derived from the convention of British constitution. These sovereign factors include; a futur e parliament cannot be connected by the existing one, the parliament can legislate on matters concerning its choosing such as retrospective legislation, the parliament can create any law and no court can impede such laws. In general terms, it means that the parliament can choose or cancel any law, and courts within UK must enforce them. Being a member of EC, such principles are compromised (MacCormick 1999, p.29). In 1957, the treaty of Rome set up EEC. This treaty made up the primary laws constituted in the EEC constitution. According to Bra & Malanczuk (1997, p. 65), the Rome Treaty is superior to all national or domestic laws. In case there exists a conflict between the treaty of Rome and the parliament, the first one will prevail i.e. the treaty of Rome. Therefore, the constitutional convention that sovereignty is attained by the parliament is contradicted. As asserted by Hunt (1998, p. 109), under some circumstances, a judge fails to apply English statute provisions in the trea ty of Rome. The 1972 European Communities Act under section two presents that all legislations of the parliament passed either after or before the EU act must be applied and construed in agreement with the community law (Borchardt 1991, p. 76). English law must be well interpreted more so, have effect subject to European Community law is supreme principle. Solely, the EC law takes precedence

Theories to explain narcissistic personality disorder

Theories to explain narcissistic personality disorder Theories are explanations of cause-effect relationship of human phenomenon. A well-developed theory presents a set of testable propositions stating the relationships of variables producing a phenomenon i.e. it should be capable of explaining the dynamics of human behaviour. All theories of human behaviour are not alike. They do not enjoy equal status both in dimensions and depth. Some are major theories, others are mini theories, and still others are simply concepts. For example, psychoanalytic theory and reinforcement theory are major theories; cognitive dissonance theory and attribution theory are mini theories; and complementary theory of attraction and narcissistic theory of personality disorder are simply concepts. We take up Freudian psychoanalytic theory first. Freuds (1910, 1911) first explicit formulation of narcissism conceived it is a normal phase of development standing midway between autoeroticism and object love. During this transitory period, initially diverse and unconnected autoerotic sensations were fused into what was experienced as ones body, which then become a single, unified love-object. In 1914 Freud aligned narcissism with libido theory and proposed that it ultimately matured and diffused into object relationships. Shortly thereafter he reformulated his thinking on the developmental sequence and spoke of the autoerotic phase as the primary narcissistic condition. This first phase became the initial repository of libido from which emerged not only the love of self but love in general. In time narcissism was conceived by Freud as a universal developmental process that continued through life but unfolded through se ­quential stages. He recognized that difficulties may arise in this normal, sequential progression. First, the re may be failures to advance from li ­bidinal self-love to object-love, and, second, pe ­culiarities may occur in the way the person expresses narcissistic love. Freud (l914/ I925) described this latter difficulty as follows: We have found, especially in persons whose libidinal development has suffered some disturbance, as in perverts and homosexuals that in their choice of love-object they have taken as their model not the mother; but their own selves. They are plainly seek ­ing themselves as love object and their type of object choice may be termed narcissistic. (p. 45) In this only major paper devoted exclusively to narcissism, Freud (1914) suggested that in certain casesnotably among perverts and ho ­mosexuals libidinal self-centeredness stems from the childs feeling that caretakers cannot be depended on to provide love reliably. Either re ­buffed by their parents or subjected to fickle and erratic attention (seductive one moment and dep ­recating the next) these children give up as far as trusting and investing in others as love-objects. Rather than rely on the capriciousness of others or risk their rejection, these youngsters avoid the lasting attachment they achingly desire and de ­cide instead that it is only themselves they can trust and therefore love. In light of current debates within psychoana ­lytic circles, it is important to note that the devel ­opmental origin of the term narcissism described here was only one of several concepts that Freud posited as the source of libidinal self-cathexis. Moreover, the paper was not written for the purpose of formulating either a narcissistic personal ­ity type or a narcissistic character structure. Rather, Freuds interest lay in exploring and elaborating variations in both the development and the nature of libidinal cathexis. As far as clinical syn ­dromes were concerned, he referred in this paper to characteristics observed among paraphrenics (paranoid schizophrenics), megalomaniacs, and hypochondriacs. When Freud wrote, for the first time in 1931, about narcissistic libidinal type, he de ­scribed this individual as follows: The main interest is focused on self-preservation; the type is independent and not easily overawed, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦People of this type impress others, being personalities; it is on them that their fellow men are specially likely to lean; they readily as ­sume the role of leader, give a fresh stimulus to cultural development or break down existing con ­ditions. (p. 249) What is striking in this quote is Freuds charac ­terization of the narcissists strength and confi ­dence, especially since it contrasts so markedly with the low self-esteem, feelings of emptiness, pain, and depression that certain of his recent disci ­ples (Forman, 1975; Kohut, 1971) attribute to this personality, Disparities in characterizations such as these often arise as a consequence of shifts in Freuds formulations from one period to another: over his productive and long career. In this case, it can be traced to the fact that Freud identified sev ­eral origins of narcissistic self-cathexis, only one of which is the type of parental caprice and rejec ­tion that may lead to feelings of emptiness and low self-esteem. As evident from earlier excerpts, and as later elaborated further, Freuds description of the narcissistic libidinal type, brief though it is, corresponds much more closely to the DSM-III portrayal of the narcissistic personality than do several contemporary characterizations that trace their antecedents to either parental rebuff or unreliability. Relevant to this issue is a Freuds view that that narcissistic self-investment is more likely to be a prod ­uct of parental overvaluation than of parental devaluation. Moving back somewhat to the 1920s, we find three analytically oriented theorists who addressed the concept of a narcissistic personality. Wilhelm Reich claimed to have first formulated what he termed the phallic-narcissistic character at a Vienna Psychoanalytic Society meeting in 1926, although Waelder (1925) made reference to narcis ­sistic personality features in an earlier paper focusing on the mechanisms of the psychotic process. According to Kernberg (1967) narcissists present an unusual degree of self-ref ­erence in their interactions with other people, a great need to be loved and admired by others and a curious apparent contradiction between a very in ­flated concept of themselves and an inordinate need for tribute from others. Their emotional life is shallow. They experience little empathy for the feelings of others, they obtain very little enjoyment from life other than from the tributes they receive from others or from their own grandiose fantasies, and they feel restless and bored when external glit ­ter wears off and no new sources feed their self  ­regard. They envy others, tend to idealize some people from whom they expect narcissistic supplies, and to depreciate and treat with contempt those from whom they do not expect anything (often their former idols). In general, their relationships with other people are clearly exploitative and sometimes parasitic. It is as if they feel they have the right to control and possess others and to exploit them with ­out guilt feelings, and behind a surface which very often is charming and engaging, one senses coldness and ruthlessness. Very often such patients are considered to be dependent because they need so much tribute and adoration from others, but on a deeper level they are completely unable really to de ­pend on anybody because of their deep distrust and depreciation of other. (p. 655) Kernberg (1967) asserted that the haughty and grandiose constellation of behaviors that charac ­terizes the narcissist is a defense against the pro ­jection of oral rage that, in turn, stems from the narcissists incapacity to depend on inter ­nalized good objects. In this etiologic formula ­tion, Kernberg claimed that the experiential background of most narcissists includes chroni ­cally cold parental figures who exhibit either in ­difference or covert, but spitefully aggressive, attitudes toward their children. At the same time, the young, future narcissist is often found to pos ­sess some special talent or status within the fam ­ily, such as playing the role of genius or being the only child. This quality of specialness serves as a refuge, at first only temporarily but ultimately an often-returned-to haven that reli ­ably offsets the underlying feeling of having been unloved by the vengefully rejecting parent. Kernberg (1975) describes the following pointwise eleven characteristics of narcissistic personality: Excessive self absorption. Superficially smooth, appropriate and effective social adaptation covering profound distortions in internal relations with other people. Intense ambitiousness. Grandiose fantasies existing side by side with feelings of inferiority. Over dependence on external admiration and acclaim. Feelings of boredom and emptiness. Endless search for gratification of strivings for brilliance, wealth, power and beauty. Incapacity to love to be concerned or to be empathic toward others. Chronic uncertainty and dissatisfaction about oneself. Exploitativeness and ruthlessness toward others. Chronic, intense envy, and defenses against such envy e.g., devaluation, omnipotent central and narcissistic withdrawal. Kohuts Approach Kohuts (1971) views are more difficult to summa ­rize than those of Kernberg, perhaps as a conse ­quence of their greater originality. Despite having been written in esoteric, if not obscure, psychoanalytic jargon and having been formulated in an ingenious, if at times ponderous and tautological fashion, Kohuts work has attracted numerous disciples. Fortunately, a score of in ­terpreters have sought to elucidate his metapsy ­chological assertions, which many consider among the more imaginative advances in recent analytic theory (Forman, 1975; Gedo Gold ­berg, 1973; Palombo, 1976; Wolf, 1976). Kohut (1971) rejects the traditional Freudian and Kernbergian thesis that narcissistic self-investment re ­sults from a defensive withdrawal of object-love attachments following a pattern of chronic parental coldness or vengeful spite. This classical view con ­tends that narcissism is a result of developmental arrests or regressions to earlier points of fixation. Thus, the future narcissist, according to standard analytic metapsychology, regresses to or fails to progress through the usual developmental sequence of initial undifferentiated libido, followed by auto ­eroticism, narcissism, and, finally, object-love. It is not the content as such but the sequence of libidinal maturation that Kohut challenges. His clinical ob ­servations have led him to assert that the primitive narcissistic libido has its own developmental line and sequence of continuity into adulthood. That is, it does not fade away by becoming transformed into object-libido, as contended by classical theo ­ri sts, but unfolds into its own set of mature narcis ­sistic processes and structures. In healthy form, for example, these processes might include behaviors such as humor and creativity; similarly, and most significantly, it is through this narcissistic develop ­mental sequence that the cohesive psychic structure of self ultimately emerges. Pathology in narcissistic development, according to Kohut, occurs as a consequence of failures to in ­tegrate one of two major spheres of self-maturation, the grandiose self and the idealized parental image. Confronted by realistic shortcomings that undermine early feelings of grandiose omnipotence, or subsequently recognizing the equally illusory na ­ture of the idealized powers they have attributed to their parents, these children must find a way to overcome their disappointments so as not to fragment If disillusioned, rejected, or experienc ­ing cold and unempathic care at the earliest stages of self-development, serious pathology, such as psy ­chotic or borderline states, will occur. Trauma or disappointment at a later phase will have somewhat different repercussions depending on whether the difficulty centered on the development of the grandiose self or on the parental imago. In the for ­mer, the child will fail to develop the sense of ful ­fillment and self-confiden ce that comes from I feeling worthwhile and valued; as a consequence, these needs will split off and result in the persis ­tent seeking of narcissistic recognition through adulthood. Along the second line of self-develop ­ment, children who are unable to idealize their par ­ents because of the latters indifference or rejection will feel devastated, depressed, and empty. Through adulthood, they will seek idealized parental surro ­gates who, inevitably, will fail to live up to the om ­nipotent powers the narcissists hoped to find within them. In their desperate search for an ideal that is greater than themselves, they are often led to be ­ have in a weak and self-effacing manner that will enable others to overshadow them. What is notable is that Kohuts is a developmen ­tal theory of self and not a personality characterization. Nevertheless, it leads to a clinical picture that at variance with those of Freud, Kernberg, and the DSM..III and IV. The features that emerge from Kohuts descriptions have been summarized by Forman (1975). Listed among the more promi ­nent are (a) low self-esteem, (b) tendencies toward periodic hypochondriasis, and (c) feelings of emptiness or deadness. Bursten (1973) has sought to distinguish four personality variants within the narcissistic grouping, speaking of them as the craving, paranoid, ma ­nipulative, and phallic types, He refers to the craving variety as clinging, demanding, often pouting and whining (p. 290). Those labelled paranoid narcissists correspond with general descrip ­tions of the paranoid personality. Manipulative narcissists encompass a large segment of what are referred to as antisocial personalities in the DSM-II. The fourth subtype, phallic narcissists, describes patients who are exhibitionistic, reckless, cold, and arrogant. In seeking to contrast borderline from narcissistic personalities, Bursten makes reference to the distinction as bearing on the cohesiveness of self. Elaborating this distinction, he speaks of the narcissistic personality as comprisingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a group of people whose sense of self is suffi ­ciently cohesive that they do not suffer from these types of fragility problems, The striking feature of this cluster of personality types centers around self-esteem, They maintain an intense interest in themselves and harbor both grandiose fantasies, al ­beit not to a delusional extent, and the need to as ­sociate with powerful figures, When one frustrates their vanity or their need for an ideal parent, they become dysfunctional-they suffer severe dis ­appointment, depression, rage, and hypochondria ­sis, They may even have fleeting episodes of confusion, but such mental disintegration is very brief and does not have the prominence and the persistence of people whose personalities fall in the borderline cluster. To be noted, cohesiveness of their sense of self is maintained by the intensity focus on themselves. (Bursten 1973, p. 414). Drawing on Burstens conceptions of self ­ cohesiveness, Adler (1981) elaborates further on the continuum of narcissistic and borderline personalities: Borderline patients have serious difficulties in maintaining stable self-object transferences as well as a sense of self-cohesivenessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Patients with narcissistic personality disorders on the upper end of the continuum are able to main ­tain self-cohesiveness, except for transient fragmentation. These fragmentation experiences can often be examined in the therapeutic situation with ­out serious disruptionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Finally, patients with a narcissistic personality disorder do not experience the feelings of aloneness experienced by borderline patients. From the borderline patient capable of a serious regression at one end of the continuum to the patient with a stable narcissistic personality disorder at the other end, we can evaluate our patients, using cohesiveness of the self; self-object transference stability, and the achievement of aloneness. (pp. 47-48) Coopers Approach Cooper (1984, 1988, 1989) has written exten ­sively on different facets of the narcissistic char ­acter, describing aspects of its development, the central role of an integrated self-image, and its in ­tertwining with masochistic like tendencies. In each sphere, his Insights have been unusually as ­tute and his themes both scholarly and eloquently expressed. Speaking of the importance of an integrated self-image, Cooper (1984) writes: A vital aspect of normal self-development is the achievement of an internalized, integrated self image (p.46) Different workers have referred to these integrative capacities and failures .in a variety of ways Kohut spoke of enfeebled selves lacking co ­hesion, Kernberg speaks of splits in self-represen ­tations. Erikson referred to identity diffusion, and winnicott spoke of the false Self. Under many different headings, every investigator in this area has emphasized the core importance of the cre ­ation of a unified, coherent, integrated i nner sense of self. (p. 47) Describing the intermeshing of narcissistic and masochistic pathology, Cooper (1989) comments: Frustrations of narcissistic strivings lead to repara ­tive attempts to maintain omnipotent fantasiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.Self esteem takes on a pathological quality when an individual begins to derive satisfaction from mas ­tery of his own humiliations. A pattern of deriv ­ing pleasure out of displeasure has begun. This pattern provides the groundwork for the later clini ­cal picture of . . . the injustice collector. These individuals are basically narcissistic- ­masochistic characters and their analysis regularly reveals that narcissistic defenses of grandiosity and entitlement are used to ward off masochistic tenden ­cies toward self-abasement and self-damage. (p. 314) Taking issue with the descriptively narrow for ­mulations of the narcissistic personality in the DSM, Cooper and Sacks (1991) offer the following comments: The diagnostic features are a caricature not a clinical picture. The core issue is a conflict over self-esteem in defense of self-inflation. This grandiosity is more or less fragile or becomes more or less pathologically unrealistic when threats to self-esteem and self-representation .are present in the form of criticism tasks beyond ones capacity, etc. These patients often have a slippery ethical sys ­tem, not out of intent to exploit, but out of the need to hide flaws and keep their defects secret. Narcissistic characters also have frequent paranoid tendencies, again arising out of the need to hide im ­perfections. The sense of needing to feel perfect is as much a part of the picture as grandiosity, which is an overt characteristic. (p.3) Akhtar and Thomsans Approach In a series of particularly insightful papers, Akhtar and Thomson (1982) have sought to bring the scattered literature on the narcissi into a multifaceted profile, including their characteristic overt and covert features in six areas of psychoso ­cial functioning. In a recent book, Akhtar (1992) indicates that narcissists appear overtly grandiose, exploitative, seductive and articulate. Covertly, however, they are doubt-ridden, envious of others; chronically bored corruptible, and unable to love. Akhtars format for differentiating the overt from the covert is an extremely helpful distinction owing to the disparity that exists among many narcissists between their self-presentations and their intrapsychic doubts. Gundersons Approach Another important contributor in the narcissistic personality literature is Gunderson (1983; Gunderson Ronningstam, 1991, Gunderson. Ronningstam, 1991 Smith. In summarizing the features of the narcissist, he includes several criteria (Gunderson Ronningstam, 1991): Narcissistic patients are usually talented and have had sustained periods of successful academic employment, or creative achievement, This is frequently a source for their sense of superiority, It is also a reason why they are more apt to appear in private practice settings than in either institutions or clinics. Narcissistically disturbed patients reported histories in which they have reacted with hostility and suspicion to the perception of other peoples envy toward them. They believe that because of envy other peoples envy toward them. They believe that because of envy other people have set out to hurt them spoil their work, diminish their achievements, or criticize them behind their back. Feelings of devaluation/or contempt may occur toward many people but are especially evident to ­ward anyone why they believe has betrayed or oth ­erwise disappointed them. These become sustained attitudes of dislike or dismissal. (pp. 114-115) Stones Approach Another astute contemporary theorist. Stone (1993) further amplifies the divergent back ­grounds and psychic states of the narcissist as the following: Narcissistic traits can develop, curiously, when there are deviations from ideal rearing on either side: pampering or neglecting; expecting too much or too little. Excessive praise of a child . . . can give rise to . . . feelings of superiority, of being destined for greatness. . . . But compensatory feel ­ings of a similar kind can arise where there has been parental indifference and neglect, for in this situation a child may develop an exaggerated de ­sire for greatness by way of shoring up a sense of self-worth in the absence of the ordinary parental praise. Whereas the overly praised child may regard himself as better than he really is, the neglected child may present a dual picture: an outward sense of (compensatory) specialness cov ­ering an inward sense worthlessness. (p. 260) Learys Approach: Timothy Leary (1957), a disciple of Homey and others of the social and interpersonal school of thought, extended their notions to what he terms adjustment through competition. Leary speaks of this pattern as demonstrating a competitive self-confident narcissism, described in the follow ­ing quotes: In its maladaptive extreme it becomes a smug, cold, selfish, exploitive social role. In this case the adaptive self-confidence and independence be ­come exaggerated into a self-oriented rejection of othersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The individuals feel most secure when they are independent of other peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The narcissist putsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦distance between himself and others- wants to be independent of and superior to the other one. Dependence is terrifying. (p. 332) The second group of . . . patients . . . are those whose self-regard has received a decent defeat. They often report the most colorful and fearful symptomatology . . . The superficial impression of depression or dependence is deceptive. Psychologi ­cal testing or perceptive interviewing will reveal that the patients are not as anxious or depressed as they appear. What becomes evident is a narcissistic concern with their own reactions, their own sensi ­tivities. The precipitating cause for their entrance to the clinic is usually a shift in their life situation, which causes frustration or a blow to their pride. (p. 335) Benjamins Approach Following the interpersonal perspective of Leary are a number of interpersonally oriented theorists who drafted their model of various personality disorders in highly fruitful work. Notable among this group is Benjamin (1993), who has formulated a complex analysis of the narcis ­sistic character. In her recent work, she describes this personality as follows: There is extreme vulnerability to criticism or being ignored, together with a strong wish for love, sup ­port, and admiring deference from others. The baseline position involves noncontingent love of self and presumptive control of others. If the support is withdrawn, or if there is any evidence of lack of perfection, the self-concept degrades to severe self-criticism. Totally lacking in empathy, these persons treat others with contempt, and hold the self above and beyond the fray. (p. 147) [The narcissist] expects to be given whatever he or she wants and needs, no matter what it might mean to others. This does not include active decep ­tion, but rather is a consequence of the belief that he or she is entitled. For example, the NPD would not set out to con a little old lady out of her life savings; however, if she offered them, the NPD would accept such a gift without reflection about its impact on her. [He/She] will expect great dedication, overwork, and heroic performance from the people associated with him or her without giving any thought to the impact of this pattern in their lives. (p. 150) Beck and Freemans Approach Contributing the insightful analysis of the nar ­cissistic personality from a cognitive point of view. Beck and Freeman (1990) provide the following proposal concerning this individuals dis ­torted belief system: The core narcissistic beliefs are as follows: Since I am special, I deserve special dispensations, privi ­leges, and prerogatives, Im superior to others and they should acknowledge this, Im above the rules. Their main strategies consist of doing whatever they can to reinforce their superior status and to expand their personal domain. Thus, they may seek glory, wealth, position, power, and prestige as a way of continuously reinforcing their superior image. Their main affect is anger when other people do not accord them the admiration or respect that they believe they are entitled to, or otherwise thwart them in some way. They are prone to becom ­ing depressed, however, if their strategies are foiled. (Beck Freeman 1990. p. 50) Narcissistic Personality Disorder can be conceptualized as stemming from a combination of dysfunctional schemas about the self, the world, and the future. The early founda ­tion of these schemas is developed by direct and indirect messages from parents, siblings, and sig ­nificant others, and by experiences that mold beliefs about personal uniqueness and self-impor ­tanceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Narcissists regard themselves as spe ­cial, exceptional, and justified in focusing exclusively on personal gratification; they expect admiration, deference, and compliance from oth ­ers, and their expectations of the future focus on the realization of grandiose fantasies. At the same time, beliefs about the importance of other peoples feelings are conspicuously lacking. Be ­havior is affected by deficits in cooperation and reciprocal social interaction, as well as by ex ­cesses in demanding, self-indulgent, and some ­times aggressive behaviors. (p. 238). In writing theories of narcissistic personality disorder, the stereotyped pattern was not adopted. Rather, attempt was made to present the view of clinicians, theoreticians and social thinkers. Highlights are given below: Psycho dynamically oriented theorists conclude that the narcissistic disorders are the product of emotionally unhealthy parent child relationship. The cold and callous mother/father produce a sense of rejection and unworthiness in child with he result that such a child spends his life defending himself that he is good and loved child and he deserves admiration and attention form all others around him. Object-relation theorists are basically psychodynamically oriented. They are as a matter of fact both derivatives and deviationists. Since they give much more importance to mother-child relationship than what is commonly given to parent-child relationship, they are described as object-relation (mother-child relation) theorists. According to object-relation theorists, negative relationship between mother-child relationship has negative impact on the growing negative personality of the child. Generally such a child develops a grandiose self-image, consequently, illusion of self-sufficiency and freedom from parental restriction is reported. Such a child is much prone to narcissistic personality tendencies. Those who give importance both to behavioural and cognitive aspects or personality development do not approve the extreme sides of child-rearing practices. They approve neither too much love nor too much negligence. Extremity of approach to the child is held to be a responsible factor in the development of narcissistic disorder. In support of this proposition, first born/the only born child who is generally over-loved is said to be prone to the development of narcissistic tendencies. Socio-cultural theorists hold that in a society where freedom of living life in the way parents are living is not questioned, adolescents feel free to adopt individualistic life-pattern. In other words, narcissism is held to have link with fading interest in ones culture. That is, where individualism is preferred to collectivism, where new values are getting recognition, narcissistic lifestyle is very likely to gain strong ground. It may be summarized that articles and books have been written about narcissistic personality disorders from two opposite perspectives. The first perspective is psycho, analytic theory which suggests that personalities are compensating for inadequate affection and approval from their parents in early childhood (Kernberg, 1975; Kohut, 1972). The second perspective is social learning perspective (Millon, 1969, 1981) which holds that narcissistic personality disorders are the product of home life, created by parents who have inflated views of their childrens intelligence, achievements, and beauty of face, figure and complexion.

Computer Intelligence :: essays research papers fc

Can computers think independently and do they have â€Å"minds†? This question has been the topic of countless, bad movies since the 1950s as well as a number of science fiction novels. We all believe that we have minds. It is something that is taken for granted but what exactly is a mind and are humans the only to possess them? Ever since the invention of the computer, they have been a mystery, even to the smartest of scientists. With the ongoing development of artificial intelligence and high population of computer literate people, the possibility of computers with minds must be re-evaluated. The initial question that must be answered before tackling the mind/computer problem is how do you define a mind? This is something that philosophers have been trying to answer for hundreds of years, long before the invention of the computer. Renee Descartes supported the concept of ‘dualism’ which is the belief that the mind is a separate non-physical entity associated with the body during its life. On the other hand, behaviorism holds the notion that the mind does not exist but rather patterns of behavior and our pre-dispositions to such behavior. Functionalism is another school of thought that has come to light recently and draws its theory from computer technology. Functionalism believes that the mind is simply a program and the body, its hardware. With all the different theories, none of them have been able to answer the question on whether computers are similar enough to the human brain to have intelligence. The think the simplest definition for intelligence is the ability to adapt. You can tell a computer to go to a specific IP address but if IBM’s address is no longer www.ibm.com, the computer does not know how to find the new one. More specifically, it can be said that intelligence is the to take into consideration the circumstances of completing a certain task. Alan Turing, a mathematician, sought to answer the question on whether or not computers possess intelligence. The Turing Test asked people to communicate with something or someone that they could not see. The people engaged in the communication were then asked identify whether they were talking to a machine or a human. If the test subjects thought themselves to be conversing with a human when they were really engaged with a machine, then the computer was thought to have intelligence. This test is inherently flawed.

Caesars Gallic Wars

Sanders Walker Dr. Bishop Western Civilization 103-104 11/20/12 Caesars Conquest Caesar is known as one of the greatest military leaders in history. His was General and later, Ruler of Rome during its peak years. Caesar is known for his military strategy and conquest of much of ancient Europe. Where Caesar made a name for himself was his conquest of the Gauls. Caesars conquest of Gaul consisted of many campaigns throughout northern Europe; the most notable being the battles of Avaricum, Gergovia, and the final battle in Alesia.Caesar and Vercingetorix, the leader of the Gauls, were both similar in ambition. How does Caesar fair strategically against Vercingetorix and the Gauls at the battles of Avaricum, Gergovia and, Alesia? Caesars conquest of Gaul was indeed his most difficult one. Gaul consisted of dozens of tribes and much of the territory being Northern Europe had never been explored before by the Romans. A great amount of pressure was put on Caesar by himself to conquer Gaul.H e was in deep political debt to Rome and its leaders, and he saw the conquest of Gaul to the best way to get out of debt and make a name for himself. Caesar making the first [1]Triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey gained the power of the election and became consul for the year 59 B. C. During this year he was made, â€Å"Governor of Illyricum, or Dalmatia, and of Gaul, that is to say of Gallia Cisalpina† (Pg. 40), this land is really known as a Province that Caesar acquired. Caesar having acquired these lands, but not officially having control, sought to conquer the inhabitants.Caesar is described as, â€Å"In person he was tall and slight, but well-knit; and, if he was as licentious as the mass of his contemporaries, his constitution, fortified by abstemious habits, was capable of sustaining prodigious efforts. His broad dome-like skull ; his calm and penetrating eyes ; his aquiline nose ; his massive yet finely moulded jaw, expressed, like no other human countenance, a rich and harmonious nature, aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬  intellect, passion, will moving in accord. And, if his vices were common, his generosity, his forbearance, his [2]equanimity, his magnanimity were his own.He believed, with an unwavering faith, that above himself there was a power, without whose aid the strongest judgement, the most diligent calculation might fail. That power was Fortune; and Caesar was assured that Fortune was ever on his side† (Pg. 41). Caesar was extremely ambitious and refused to be undermined by his enemies, this is probably why his conquest against overwhelming odds was so successful. As Caesar dealt with his issues in Rome, there was word that newly acquired provinces in Gaul were going to be marched on by the Helvetti.Caesar left Rome as soon as possible, cutting through the Alps to reach the province of Geneva (Cisalpine/Transalpine province). Caesar legions linked up with the legion of that province and destroyed the bridge or Rhine leading to Geneva. Helvetii sent requests to pass through, but Caesar denied them. Caesar waited out the requests as levies were created and simply denied the crossing of the Helvetii. Some tried to force themselves over, but failed miserably in doing so. Caesar crossed back gathering more legions for his command.Caesar dispersed his legions with Lieutenants into different regions of Gual, with his plan being to divide the already disbanded Gallic tribes. Caesar returned to Rome and received great praise for his victory over the Helvetii. Caesar marches back towards northern Europe in 58 B. C where Ariovistus and his massive hordes of Germanic soldiers, had become a threat to Caesars campaign against the Gauls outside the town of Vesontio. The legions lacking rest and supplies and fearing Ariovistus, was taking its toll on Caesars men.A panic amongst the legionnaires ensued; Caesar immediately puts to work his persona. Giving a riveting speech to the legions, he regained the confidence overwhelmingly. There on ly several miles separating Caesar and Ariovistus, but many Cavalry skirmishes took place as Caesar tried time and again to force the Germanics to fight. Ariovistus requested several meetings with Caesar, the first resulting in failure due to lack of compromises, and the second because Caesar never attended. Ariovistus refused to fight before the New Moon, Caesar finding this out attacked early forcing the Germans to fight.Caesar having command of the right wing of the legions, had planned on attacking the opposing Germans left wing which was supposedly their weak point. Ariovistus and the German horde fell upon the Roman legions quickly leaving huge gaps between the legions. This prevented the Roman javelins to be thrown. The Germans formed a, â€Å"[3]phalanxes† (Pg. 66), which was a wall of men inclosing themselves in a shielded wall. The Romans made quick dismemberment of this wall of shields as the Romans, â€Å"Dug their swords down into them† (Pg. 66), leading t o the German left wing falling back.The left wing of the Roman legion however was beginning to give up ground. In command of the Caesars cavalry was Publius Crassus, the son of the famed triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus. Publius Crassus led the 3rd line of the cavalry in and quickly rerouted the German onslaught on the Roman left wing. This led to the victory over Ariovistus and the Germanic army. With later victorious campaigns over Aquitani, Usipetes, Tencteri and Atuatuca from 56-54 B. C. Caesar believes Gaul is won and return to Rome to gain political power. While Caesar believed Gaul to be, â€Å"tranquillized† (Pg. 29), or rather under control as Caesar had planned to make all of Gaul a Roman province. The Gallic chieftains discussed in great detail of what was to become of Gaul if something was not done. A rumor quickly spread through Gaul in 52 B. C that Clodius had been murdered and violent riots broke out all over Gaul. The Gallic chieftains of Carnute made quick us e of time while Caesar was still in Rome; a small group of Carnutes stormed into the town of Cenabum and killed Roman merchants and a commissariat officer of Caesars as well.In the Gallic town of Gergovia, a young Gallic noble came to power. His name was Vercingetorix and he quickly assumed dominance throughout Gaul. Vercingetorix was very impressionable and ambitious, much like Caesar. He soon united all Gaul sparking a massive rebellion in 52 B. C. Caesar observed Vercingetorix and saw that he was vastly becoming a huge threat. Roman provinces in peril began to fall due to lack of supplies, But Caesar moved swiftly from Rome to rescue the provinces. Caesar stopped the invasion of Narbo. Caesar still needed to regroup with his legions in the north.Caesars being the brilliant military leader he was, planned to march north through mountains of [4]Cevennes into the land of Vercingetorix, where the land Agedincum was. The journey was rough for Caesars men under the harsh conditions of winter, but to Caesars advantage, Vercingetorix did not realize where the Romans were or where they were going. As Romans came through the mountains, â€Å"Caesar’s horsemen swept over the country in small parties, carrying fire and sword† (Pg. 135), Caesar anticipated that Vercingetorix would come to Agedincums relieve, and he did so reluctantly while Caesar proceeded north to regroup with his legions.Once Caesar had gathered his legions he awaited Vercingetorix next move. Vercingetorix recovered from the Romans strategic maneuvering, decided to go south, opposite of Caesars position and siege Gorgobina an allies of Caesars provinces. Vercingetorix figured this, â€Å"To strike at Caesar’s allies would be equivalent to striking at Caesar himself† (Pg. 136). This indeed was true it was imperative that Caesar could not lose the trust of his allies, but Caesar also knew that pursuing hundreds of miles south without enough supplies would put his legions at r isk of starvation. Caesar contemplated this and decided to relieve Gorgobina.Caesar instead of taking the same route he took to come north he went around in attempt for revenge for the massacre of Roman citizens. Caesar went about it, â€Å"More-over, by ravaging the lands of Carnutes and Bituriges, he might count on forcing Vercingetorix to relax his hold on Gorgobina† (Pg. 137). Caesar captured Vellaunodunum and approached Cenabum with rage as Romans set [5]Cenabum ablaze as supplies were given up to the legions while Caesar marched onwards to Avaricum. Vercingetorix believed the only way to weaken Caesars onslaught through his land was to burn and destroy any resources ahead of Caesar.The Gauls did not receive the news very optimistically. Burning down towns and crops was a harsh method of slowing down the Romans, but Vercingetorix got the Gauls to agree, with this speech he made, â€Å"They must make up their minds to sacrifice their own interest for the national weal. E very hamlet, every barn where the enemy could find provender must be burned to the ground. Even the towns must be destroyed, save those which were impregnable, lest they should tempt men who ought to be in the field to go to them for shelter, and lest the Romans plunder their stores† (Pg. 139).The Gauls still however thought to defend Avaricum rather than burn it to the ground. Avaricum was surrounded by walls and marshes and moats. Caesar made his encampment south of Avaricum several hundred yards out. Caesar realized the only way to siege Avaricum was to build siege towers and terraces. The marshes could not serve as proper platforms so, â€Å"in order to provide a secure foundation, the ground was cleared of obstructions and leveled as far as possible by men working inside stout huts† (Pg. 140). Wooden shields protected men relaying material through, â€Å"lines of sheds† (Pg. 40), as it was said to have taken several weeks to construct the towers. The effects of Vercingetorix burning of Gallic resources began to take its toll on Caesars legions. The Romans supplies began to dwindle and as Caesar sent men out to gather supplies and resources, Vercingetorix had patrols keep track of Caesars movements. Caesar was surrounded and while they waited to attack Avaricum, his men killed the cattle for food. Caesar did all he could to keep his legions spirits up, he would tell them, â€Å"He would abandon the siege† (Pg. 141), but the legionnaires were stubbornly loyal.A small attack was made on the towers, but only set the construction a day behind. The following day Caesar conducted his siege of Avaricum. The siege took no time at all with the Romans climbing the walls, they realized it was pointless to go down into the city, but rather, â€Å"They lined the wall round; and not a man of them would come down. Throwing away their weapons, the Gauls ran for their lives through the town to its furthest extremity; and there many jostling one another in the narrow gateways, were slaughtered, while others, who shouldered their way out were cut down by the cavalry† (Pg. 146).This was indeed a massacre by the Romans; no one was spared not man women or child. The Romans found a multitude of resources such as corn and other supplies. The Gauls were outraged by this massacre at [6]Avaricum. Caesar had hoped to break the Gallic pride with this victory, but it did quite the opposite. Vercingetorix following the massacre made a speech and a promise to Gaul. This speech gave Gaul a new found enragement and confidence. Caesar marched south to Gergovia, Vercingetorix homeland. Once Vercingetorix got word of Caesars movement he quickly destroyed all bridges along the river leaving only the bottom intact.As the Gauls caught up with Caesar, the Romans found it impossible to repair the bridges with the Gauls watching. Caesar was forced to come up with another diversion; under the cover of darkness he moved opposite of one of the b ridges, and in the morning, â€Å"he took forty out of the sixty cohorts, composing his force; arrayed them in six divisions, so that seen from a distance, they would look like the six legions† (Pg. 149). With Caesar outwitting Vercingetorix, he moved south toward the mountain of Gergovia.As Caesar approached Gergovia a cavalry skirmish ensues, but the Gallic cavalry of Vercingetorix is forced back in the stronghold of Gergovia. Gergovia was going to prove to be another difficult siege due to its geography, â€Å"The town stood on an oblong plateau, which formed the summit, extending about seven furlongs from east to west, and six hundred yards wide† (Pg. 150). The town also had an outer wall as well, but the weak point appeared to be the southern wall. There were two large encampments in Gergovia, the smallest was on the southern wall, while the main encampment was on the steepest part of Gergovian wall.Caesar under the cover of night had several divsions move up the southern wall having Vercingetorix think that was where the main attack would be. Caesars full-scale attack actually occurred on the eastern or steepest side with Vercingetorix largest encampment was. The Gauls were caught off guard, â€Å"but the Romans deceived by their armour, took them for enemies: the Gauls were closing in up them on every side† (Pg. 158). As the Romans became overwhelmed they came back down the southern hillside, the Gauls followed blindly, as the Gauls were struck by left and right flanks of Caesars [7]10th legion.The battle on the hill was devastating on sides, 46 centurions and approximately 700 legionnaire’s dead and thousands wounded. Caesar disbanded the siege and tried to return to Rome to regroup and gather supplies and men. After the Gergovia the people of Gaul still had their faith in Vercingetorix, he was re-elected Commander and Chief. Caesar is further planning his campaign decided to enlist a large number of German cavalry to his as sortment. During the entire Gallic Wars, Caesar has been outnumbered almost 3 to 1 and sometimes 4 to 1 odds, but Caesars strategy is what has been proving key in battles; the quality of men over numbers.As Caesar marches toward the provinces, Vercingetorix in a sudden ignorant act of boldness ascends his infantry and small cavalry head on attacking Caesars Roman legions. Caesar staying calm, â€Å"He sent his cavalry, in three divisions, to repel the triple attack† (Pg. 168). The Gauls retreated to Alesia with Caesars legions following close behind night and day. As the Romans reach Alesia Caesar informs his men that this battle will be a, â€Å"toilsome effort† (Pg. 170). Caesar realized that Alesia could only be taken by what he called, â€Å"a line of investment, fully nine miles in length, along which a ring of camps was constructed† (Pg. 70), this was a series of circumvallations: trenches, ramparts, entrenchments, and barriers built around Alesia with cav alry on low ground and legion infantry on high slopes. The Romans being few in number did not have enough men or cavalry to guard the surrounding blockade of Alesia. Vercingetorix realizing that he was being closed in with four Roman legions linking up with Caesars six legions, Vercingetorix had to get help somehow. Under the cover of darkness Vercingetorix sent out Gauls to every region and, â€Å"bring back with them every man who could wield a sword† (Pg. 171). He also reminded them not to abandon the Gallic cause.Caesar had been given news of Vercingetorix call for relief armies, by group of deserters. Caesar understood that he too was surrounded by all of Gaul, but it was still uncertain whether the relief armies would show up for Vercingetorix. Unlike the Romans who had proven loyalty and precision in battle, the Gauls even though united, were still undisciplined and lacked the skill of a Roman legionnaire. Caesar seeing the potential threat from the surrounding mountai ns proceeded to build entrenchments and barriers to his rear and on the western slope of Alesia where an open meadow was located.Caesars men made haste with the construction of barriers and traps like, â€Å"five rows of strong boughs were fixed in each, with one end protruding above ground, sharpened and with the branches projecting so as to form a kind of [8]abatis† (Pg. 139/Part I). Caesar also had traps under the ground surface, â€Å"In front of them and rising a few inches above the ground, but purposely concealed by brushwood, were sharp pointed logs embedded in small pits† (Pg. 139/Part I), as there were also barbed spikes lying under the turf. Caesar moved quickly to gather as much corn and resources as he could, knowing that this battle may very well be the last.Meanwhile inside the wall of Alesia Vercingetorix had the grain thrown into a single stock; as the grain would be dispersed among the soldiers rather than the citizens. A council of Gallic Chieftains gathered at an assembly to discuss Vercingetorix situation in Alesia and how he had requested a, â€Å"universal levy† (Pg. 173), or a mass of armies combined. It was heavily debated because many tribes were at conflict with Germanic tribes or resolving domestic problems; some simply refused to send any army. In all about 43 tribes joined in with a massive cavalry as well.Four generals were given command of the 250,000 Gauls as it was said there was, â€Å"No one leader of sufficient eminence to command universal respect† (Pg. 174), this would be proven decisively. As the relief army of Gaul marched towards Alesia, days away, the city was going into famine. The chieftains proposed the method of cannibalism as said, â€Å"That their fathers, when driven into the fastnesses by the Cimbri and Teutoni, had sustained life by feeding upon the flesh of those who were useless for warfare† (Pg. 175). It was rather decided that the weak, young, and old were citizens of th e town, were to be exiled.The hopeless looking women and children, and elderly came down to the Roman blockade. Caesars blockade forbid no-one to pass through; the exiled inhabitants were not taken in, instead Caesar had them sent back or stay between the lines of the wall and blockade to perish. The relief army soon arrives passing through the mountain valley, they could be seen from miles away as a mass of cavalry and infantry. Commius leading the Gallic mass launched a cavalry assault on Caesars rear defenses as Vercingetorix attacked from the inner defenses from [9]Alesia.The Roman legions held strong repelling the Gallic cavalry with Caesars brilliant defensive military strategy. The Romans formed a compact body of infantry and split the Gallic cavalry’s onslaught into disarray. The one major advantage the Caesar had over all the Gauls it was the reliable communication he had with his commanders of his legions. The Romans were on point and deadly, as the first day was wo n by Caesar. A 24 hour period of cease fire took place, and this time under the cover of darkness the Gauls launched a surprise attack on the Roman blockade using loud shouts to alert the rest of the Gallic army.The Gauls attempted to siege the blockade walls with grappling-hooks and ladders they attempted to overpower the blockades. In between the defensive lines the Gauls were dismembered by the wooden spikes and traps placed along the lines. Two sections of the Gallic army failed to cooperate with the rest of the mass due to poor [10]communication during the night. Roman artillery took apart the Gauls in between the defenses as casualties mounted because of poor effectiveness during the night raid. The Gauls retreated before dawn, fearing a flank from the right.Vercingetorix and Caesar refused to give into each other with casualties piling up on both parties, neither side budged. The soldiers of both sides were describes as they fought, â€Å"Every man fought like a hero; for th ey knew that from the heights around friends and enemies alike were anxiously watching† (Pg. 176). Vercingetorix and the Gauls planned for a final assault on the Romans. Vercingetorix discovered a weak spot in the Roman blockade where Caesars men were unable to build a barrier. The Gauls with no delay assaulted the weak point with 60,000 Gallic warriors against only two legions.The Romans became heavily overwhelmed and in disarray with 60,000 Gauls attacking from the rear and Vercingetorix army attacking from the inner walls. The Romans in panic and disorganization were described as, â€Å"painfully distracted by the roar of battle in their rear; for both on the inner and the outer line men felt, as they fought, that they would perish if their comrades behind suffered the enemy to break through† (Pg. 178). It was difficult for the Roman legions to mass together due to the overwhelming Gallic numbers. Vercassivellaunus, commanding the 60,000 Gauls from the rear; continua lly sent fresh infantry in.The Gallic infantry was disposable due the sheer numbers. Caesar seeing the disarray of the Romans and his cavalry sent Labienus with six cohorts to hold their ground till they were forced to fight in open ground. In astonishing fashion Caesar mounting horseback went down the Roman line as it was depicted, â€Å"riding down between the lines on to the plain, he harangued his weary soldiers and adjured them not to give in† (Pg. 179), continuing he said, â€Å"Just one short hour, and the prize was won† (Pg. 179). It was not until Caesar himself on horseback galloped steadfast, leading the last head on assault.A new found zealous came over the Roman legions as they followed behind Caesar, they disbanded the Gauls in a mass, scattering across the land. The Gauls to appease the Romans would have Vercingetorix give himself up and die. Vercingetorix gave himself up willingly out of respect for Caesar, being an admirer of his military brilliance. It was said that Vercingetorix, â€Å"took off his armour, laid down his sword, and bowed himself at Caesar’s feet† (Pg. 180). Caesar had no admiration for Vercingetorix as it came with a great cost. Caesar had him imprisoned in a dungeon, and then executed six ears later. The conquering of Gaul propelled Caesars political power tremendously. In 49 B. C he was elected dictator or emperor of Rome and soon after Civil war broke out eventually leading to Caesars killing. Caesar outwitted the ambitious and powerful, yet inexperienced Vercingetorix profoundly in the battles of Avaricum, Gergovia, and Alesia. Caesar conquered Gaul in such extraordinary fashion, that it still leaves some historians in amazement. Caesar outmaneuvered a quarter million Gauls and strategically dismantling them.Caesars reasoning for this long and grueling conquest of Gaul was to dig himself and Rome out of the debt that had amounted. His conquest of Gaul was also an attempt, a successful one at tha t, to further his political career and bolster his power. His victory in Rome, as said before, put Caesar on a pedestal surpassing Pompey and Crassus and making him the favorite amongst Roman people. Works Cited Holmes, Thomas. Caesar's conquest of Gaul. 1899. Print. . Julius, Caesar, W. A. McDevitte , and W. S. Bohn. The Gallic Wars . 1st. Print. . Julius, Caesar, W. A. McDevitte , and W. S. Bohn.The Gallic Wars . 3rd. Print. . Julius, Caesar, W. A. McDevitte , and W. S. Bohn. The Gallic Wars . 4th. Print. . Julius, Caesar, W. A. McDevitte , and W. S. Bohn. The Gallic Wars . 8th. Print. . Holmes, Thomas. Caesar's Conquest of Gaul:An Historical Narrative (being Part I of the Larger Work on the Same Subject). Part 1. Macmillan, ———————– [1] The First Triumvirate was between the Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey. An alliance to help bolster power for Caesar in particular. [2] Equanimity†¦one of Caesars great attributes being that he was very calm and poised in battle. 3] Phalanxes was a battle formation with consisted of shields and spears. The Romans used it very effectively against all. [pic] [4] The Cevennes Mountains are in south-central France. It is known as Hidden France by some. [5] Cenabum’s massacre was Caesars attempt at revenge as the town was pillaged. [6] The massacres of Cenabum and Avaricum specifically, was because of the difficulty Caesar had sieging the towns, thus frustration led to the killings. [7] The Roman 10th Legion was known as the Legio X Equestris and was one of Caesar more famous legions. 8] Abatis were used as barriers; they had long sharpened pointed logs. [9] â€Å"According to Napolean I (Precis des guerres de Cesar, 1836, p. 110), more than fifty days must have elapsed between the departure of Vercingetorix’s cavalry and the arrival of the relieving army† (Pg. 175) [10] Gaul having 4 commanding armies that totaled in a quarter million men made it Qy â⠂¬ËœÃ‚ »LiAOUaaaA ? â„ ¢  ¶ ? n w ? o? UO? UAU »Ã‚ ±Ã‚ §? â€Å"†°Ã¢â‚¬Å"oA|o_oRoRERhw? h42aCJ^JaJhw? h. â€Å"CJ^JaJjhyg? 0Jhw? h ®w†ºCJ^JaJhw? ho  CJ^extremely difficult for Vercingetorix to communicate successfully outside the walls.