Health Care Ethics Issue of Stem Cell Research free essay sample

Bringing to light ethical considerations and understanding multiple learning outcomes are paramount to comprehending elements of this topic. Adult stems cells are a special type of undifferentiated cell (a cell that is not specialized) that is found among differentiated cells in a tissue or organ system that can regenerate into some of the specialized cell type of that tissue or organ system. In short, adult stem cells are meant to sustain and restore the tissue or organ system they are designated. They are thought to exist in most of the body’s tissues such as the blood, brain, liver, intestine or skin. If the differentiations of adult stem cells are able to be manifested in the setting of the laboratory, adult stem cells may become the basis of transplantation-based therapies. The other type of stem cell research is over the human embryonic stem cell. The embryonic stem cells exist at the most early stages of embryonic growth and then form all of the types of cells of the human body. We will write a custom essay sample on Health Care Ethics Issue of Stem Cell Research or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Typically in the human development these embryonic cells are not found after roughly five days. The capability to form so many types of different cells, the embryonic stem cell is also known as pluriptotent stem cell. These cells have an almost wonder like potential but scientists today are unable to specifically control their development into different types of cells in the body. The issues arise on the subject of embryonic stem cell research. The controversy resides over the creation of, usage, and destruction of the human embryos for stem cell research. The opposition to embryonic stem cell research brings claims to the issue such as; * The use or destruction of human embryos for stem cell research is a deep violation in the right to human life and no regard toward autonomy of the unborn life. * There are other alternatives such as adult stem cell research. * All of the potential that embryonic stem cell research is capable of is just that, potential. There is no actual proof that the potential can be realized. Human trials have begun but have yet to yield significant proof of effectiveness and need more trials (Walsh, 2012). These claims make a strong point for the opposition. On the reverse the supporters of embryonic stem cell research make the claims of; * They have the possibility of better treatment and could cure a number of diseases and defects * They could be made to produce new organs without the need for transplant * The outcome of the success they would make would outweigh the ethical issues * The embryo is no more of a â€Å"life† than a flake of skin. As seen, both sides have clear and strong points for their position. James Thomson in 1998 at the University of Wisconsin was able to successfully remove cells from left-over embryos at different fertility clinics and grew more cells from them in a laboratory (UK Stem Cell Foundation, 2011). This was the most significant first step in embryonic stem cell research in its history. After Thomson’s success, this opened the door to many researches claiming that embryonic stem cells are capable to generate cells in many types of tissues or organs. Since the discovery in 1998, thousands of studies and published research has covered scientific journals each year. A large question raised in the issue of stem cell research is that of autonomy. The principle of autonomy involves recognizing the right of a person to make one’s own decisions (Pozgar, 2012). This enables a person to have the clear cut decision about what is best for themselves. This is recognized in the 14th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. What makes the principle of autonomy a compelling agreement in the case against embryonic stem cells research is that autonomy is only relative to self or in other words, the actions of autonomy of one person can’t prohibit the same rights from another person. Embryonic stem cell collections occur at about the 5 to 7 day range after conception (Stojkovic, 2004). Nearly all of the opposition to embryonic stem cell research identifies the moment of conception as the moment life begins. Supporters of embryonic stem cell research claim otherwise because the human cells at that point are not capable of sustaining life on their own and have no defining organ or human systems or identity. The start of life is currently unable to be defined. With the start of life in question, isn’t he right of autonomy in question for these human embryonic cells? That being stated in the interest of autonomy, wouldn’t the continuing of the research without a true definition to life a blow against the ethical consideration of autonomy? In Article Three of the United Nation’s â€Å"Universal Declaration of Human Rights† is states that, â€Å"Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. † CITE. In 2007, The Unite d States’ Supreme Court ruled that is was illegal in America to perform partial-birth abortions (NRLC, 2007). This was based on the fact that Congress determined that the abortion methods it proscribed had a disturbing similarity to the killing of a newborn infant. The combination of these two gives a growing insight that not being â€Å"born†, a human still has legal rights. The fore mentioned government ruling over partial-birth abortions did not over step the boundaries of the legality of Roe v. Wade (1973) but it did bring further consideration toward the life of an unborn child. The basis of this law was made because of the viability of the fetus in â€Å"live birth† scenarios. Science and supporters of human embryonic stem cells are quick to note that these cells are unable to self-sustain therefore are not considered worth having rights, but what if science was able to enable these cells to self sustain into a viable life? After all, the whole potential of curing diseases and manifesting these cells to form a specific body cell resides on â€Å"what if† as well. Considering the legal rights of individuals interacting with health care services, it is safe to say that it is in the dark as to what rights the unborn has. The ethical principles of Autonomy, Non-maleficence, Beneficience, and Justice come into mind when the issues of human embryonic stem cell debate come up. As mentioned earlier in this paper, the principle of autonomy is in question for the right of the human embryo. Non-maleficence is held in obligation to refrain from harming another person unless there is an extraordinary circumstance such as the instance of self-defense against harm (The Curators of the University of Missouri Cell Foundation, 2007). Providers in health care are held to an obligation not to harm patients outside of the long-term benefit procedures and treatment will bring. The destruction of human embryonic stem cells for the purpose of research and/or treatment proves invalid because of the current lack of definition of â€Å"life† by legal systems. The principle of beneficence is to do good for each other. Specifically the provider and patient relationship are relevant in health care. In the case of abortion of a conceived embryonic stem cell for research gains is under question. Does this really benefit of the woman who carries the conceived cell? What opportunity does this deprive of the conceived cell to develop into a human? Is there any real gain prevent the conceived cell from a pregnancy with the woman whom it is carried by? Does the mother have any implications toward carrying out the pregnancy? These answer to these questions must be fully met and all collectively one sided to ensure that beneficence for both the life of the mother and potential life are ensured. Justice of a person in whole should be equal world-wide. What is fair and who defines fairness is relative to situation, persons, nations, cultures, and morals.

Pythagorean Triples Essays - Diophantine Equations, Equations

Pythagorean Triples Essays - Diophantine Equations, Equations Pythagorean Triples Pythagorean Triples Three integers a, b, and c that satisfy a2 + b2 = c2 are called Pythagorean Triples. There are infinitely many such numbers and there also exists a way to generate all the triples. Let n and m be integers, n*m. Then define(*) a = n2 - m2, b = 2nm, c = n2 + m2. The three number a, b, and c always form a Pythagorean triple. The proof is simple: (n2 - m2)2 + (2mn)2 = n4 - 2n2m2 + m4 + 4n2m2 = n4 + 2n2m2 + m4 = (n2 + m2)2. The formulas were known to Euclid and used by Diophantus to obtain Pythagorean triples with special properties. However, he never raised the question whether in this way one can obtain all possible triples.The fact is that for m and n coprime of different parities, (*) yields coprime numbers a, b, and c. Conversely, all coprime triples can indeed be obtained in this manner. All others are multiples of coprime triples: ka, kb, kc.As an aside, those who mastered the arithmetic of complex numbers might have noticed that (m + in)2 = (n2 - m2) + i2mn. Which probably indicates that (*) has a source in trigonometry. But the proof below only uses simple geometry and algebra.First of all, note that if a2 + b2 = c2, then (a/c)2 + (b/c)2 = 1. With x = a/c and y = b/c we get x2 + y2 = 1. This is the well known equation of the unit circl e with center at the origin. Finding Pythagorean triples is therefore equivalent to locating rational points (i.e., points (x,y) for which both x and y are rational) on the unit circle. For if (p/q)2 + (r/s)2 = 1, multiplication by a common denominator leads to an identity between integers.Rational numbers approximate irrational to any degree of accuracy. Therefore, the set of rational pairs is dense in the whole plane. So, perhaps, one might expect that any curve should contain a lot of rational pairs or meander wildly to avoid them. But this is not the case. The recent proof of Fermat's Last Theorem lets us claim that the curves xN + yN = 1 with N*2 contain no rational points. But there are simpler examples. From Lindemann's theorem, we conclude that the graph of a perfectly smooth function y = ex contains a single rational point, (0,1). Moreover, pulling the unit circle even a little aside may change the picture drastically. Let (xk, yk) = ( 2/k, 3/k), and consider a unit circle with center at (xk, yk). As k grows, the point approaches the origin, but for no k, such a circle contains a rational point.Let t be defined by(1) t = y/(x+1). Then t(x+1) = y andt2(x + 1)2 = y2 = 1 - x2 = (1 + x)(1 - x). We are not interested in negative x. So let's cancel (1+x) on both sides. The result ist2(x + 1) = (1 - x). Solving for x we get(2) x = (1 - t2)/(1 + t2) From y = t(1+x) we also obtain(3) y = 2t/(1 + t2) Formula (1)-(3) show that t is rational iff both x and y are rational.There is another way to look at the just described configuration.The configuration consists of the unit circle centered at the origin and a straight line passing through the point (-1,0) which lies on the circle. Unless the line is tangent to the circle, the two have a second common point. In order to find this point, we have to solve simultaneously two equations: the quadratic equation of the circle x2 + y2 = 1 and the linear equation of the line. By eliminating either x or y from the latter, and substituting the result into the former, we get a quadratic equation in one variable with integer coefficients. One solution of this equation is immediate - it is related to the point (-1,0), and is rational. Therefore, the second solution of the equation is also rational and gives either x- or y-coordinate of the second point of intersection. (3,4,5), (5,12,13), (6,8,10), (7,24,25), (8,15,17), (9,12,15), (9,40,41), (10,24,26), (11,60,61), (12,16,20), (12,35,37), (13,84,85), (14,48,50), (15,20,25), (15,36,39), (15,112,113), (16,30,34), (16,63,65),

White paper on environmental friendly cars Research

White on environmental friendly cars - Research Paper Example As life kept going, different inventions took birth that enraptured the world. As a consequence, in the late 1600’s the first steam-powered vehicle was built. This led to the birth of a sequence of different generations of automobiles. Since the Industrial Revolution in 1760, fossil fuels replaced manual manufacturing processes, and in consequence of this car engines had started to be produced so as to run on the combustion of fossil fuels. For many years, even to this day, this has continued; initially the world had not known what unprecedented effect the excessive burning of fossil fuels would produce, but in the 1960’s a new discovery was made: this was Global Warming. This led environmentalists and scientists to thoroughly exhaust the subject and conclude that the excessive burning of fossil fuels is verily causing climate changes all over the world, and so it befitted the term ‘Global Warming’ (Sperling et al, 2009). In addition to this, it is also wor th noting that fossil fuels are non-renewable resources and a time shall come when the world will run out of fossil fuels, or that only the powerful will exert their absolute control over it on their own whim. In effect, the world or the poor nations, in the future years, might have to revert to former methods of transportation; that are bicycles, horses, carts, etc. When this implication was realized by environmentalists yet again, scientists again dove down and exhausted every source through which they could determine how to endure fuel shortages and still have automobiles. This has led to a breakthrough invention that can completely solve this problem. In reality the use of fuel-powered cars has never been easy for the general population. Only the wealthy have the means in current times to drive such cars. This is because several problems accompany the use of fuel-powered cars that heap heavily on a consumer with a moderate salary and a not-so-ostentatious lifestyle: one, they are expensive; this

Research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 18

Research Paper Example There are several risks factors that have a strong influence over the global business among which some of the risks includes terrorism and violence. Apart from that, there are some other factors that have a strong ability to affect business such as Political and social activist. It has been noticed through the time that terrorism and violence bring the eminent impact on the business. It has been discussed in the book by making use of different examples that terrorism and violence have direct and indirect impacts on the business in terms of trade flow. There are several reasons due to which terrorist target business. Terrorists target the visible companies in order to get media’s attention. When a company gets attacked, it directly disrupts its economic process and production that directly or indirectly influence the different areas of the country. However, business can also influence by political or social activist. It can bring diverse impacts on the global market it can affe ct the any global business in different forms such as through, product boycott, and statements to the press, regulatory enforcement and different Internet campaigns. There are different examples have been discussed below that justify the above concept of risk in business. Terrorism enforces different effects on the business and economy of the county and the similar incident has been noted in Nigeria. Northern Nigeria has faced the similar incidents of terror and violence with a very great intensity. It has influenced Nigeria in different terms such as Foreign Exchange earnings, balance of payment, financial market, economic condition and tourism. The main aim behind the terrorism in Nigeria is to ruin the stability and security forces such as by intimidating people, and their targeted places include school, shopping centers, cafeterias and restaurants in Nigeria. It particularly denotes that terrorism is a serious threat to the country interest, and

Constitutional Administrative Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Constitutional Administrative Law - Essay Example This supranational policy has greatly affected the sovereignty of member states. The attainment of the United Kingdom (UK) to the European Communities (EC) membership forces it to effect community law in the country. This paper will critically analyse and evaluate how the United Kingdom courts have initiated the community law effectiveness over principles of domestic law, parliamentary sovereignty inclusive. Evaluation of the UK Courts achievements Chief sources of community law emanate from the secondary and primary legislations, which bind the member nations onto the law’s subject. Primary legislation comprises of amendments treaties, accession treaties and original treaties. Secondary legislation is composed of laws formed in treaties accordance. Sovereignty is unrestrained political powers that enacts and makes laws in national parliaments that are neither suspended nor overridden by any other body of institution. The EC Act in 1972 stipulated that the UK had novel sources of law as from the 1st of January 1973(Steiner & Woods 2006, p.72). As highlighted earlier, these sources are the treaties or primary laws of the European communities and the secondary laws legislations. ECJ rulings have a greater implication on the English law. European community is concerned with laws from various sources such as; education, health, consumer policy, competition, companies, fishing and agriculture, free movement of goods and workers, and environment. However, it has no competencies in social and economic areas of the United Kingdom. UK courts have apprehended community law over principles underlying national laws including sovereignty of the parliament by enacting the principle of supremacy and direct effect which have greatly affected the legal system of Britain (Beatson 1998, p. 47). As highlighted by Turpin (2007, p. 41), the UK’s establishment of sovereignty is derived from the convention of British constitution. These sovereign factors include; a futur e parliament cannot be connected by the existing one, the parliament can legislate on matters concerning its choosing such as retrospective legislation, the parliament can create any law and no court can impede such laws. In general terms, it means that the parliament can choose or cancel any law, and courts within UK must enforce them. Being a member of EC, such principles are compromised (MacCormick 1999, p.29). In 1957, the treaty of Rome set up EEC. This treaty made up the primary laws constituted in the EEC constitution. According to Bra & Malanczuk (1997, p. 65), the Rome Treaty is superior to all national or domestic laws. In case there exists a conflict between the treaty of Rome and the parliament, the first one will prevail i.e. the treaty of Rome. Therefore, the constitutional convention that sovereignty is attained by the parliament is contradicted. As asserted by Hunt (1998, p. 109), under some circumstances, a judge fails to apply English statute provisions in the trea ty of Rome. The 1972 European Communities Act under section two presents that all legislations of the parliament passed either after or before the EU act must be applied and construed in agreement with the community law (Borchardt 1991, p. 76). English law must be well interpreted more so, have effect subject to European Community law is supreme principle. Solely, the EC law takes precedence

Theories to explain narcissistic personality disorder

Theories to explain narcissistic personality disorder Theories are explanations of cause-effect relationship of human phenomenon. A well-developed theory presents a set of testable propositions stating the relationships of variables producing a phenomenon i.e. it should be capable of explaining the dynamics of human behaviour. All theories of human behaviour are not alike. They do not enjoy equal status both in dimensions and depth. Some are major theories, others are mini theories, and still others are simply concepts. For example, psychoanalytic theory and reinforcement theory are major theories; cognitive dissonance theory and attribution theory are mini theories; and complementary theory of attraction and narcissistic theory of personality disorder are simply concepts. We take up Freudian psychoanalytic theory first. Freuds (1910, 1911) first explicit formulation of narcissism conceived it is a normal phase of development standing midway between autoeroticism and object love. During this transitory period, initially diverse and unconnected autoerotic sensations were fused into what was experienced as ones body, which then become a single, unified love-object. In 1914 Freud aligned narcissism with libido theory and proposed that it ultimately matured and diffused into object relationships. Shortly thereafter he reformulated his thinking on the developmental sequence and spoke of the autoerotic phase as the primary narcissistic condition. This first phase became the initial repository of libido from which emerged not only the love of self but love in general. In time narcissism was conceived by Freud as a universal developmental process that continued through life but unfolded through se ­quential stages. He recognized that difficulties may arise in this normal, sequential progression. First, the re may be failures to advance from li ­bidinal self-love to object-love, and, second, pe ­culiarities may occur in the way the person expresses narcissistic love. Freud (l914/ I925) described this latter difficulty as follows: We have found, especially in persons whose libidinal development has suffered some disturbance, as in perverts and homosexuals that in their choice of love-object they have taken as their model not the mother; but their own selves. They are plainly seek ­ing themselves as love object and their type of object choice may be termed narcissistic. (p. 45) In this only major paper devoted exclusively to narcissism, Freud (1914) suggested that in certain casesnotably among perverts and ho ­mosexuals libidinal self-centeredness stems from the childs feeling that caretakers cannot be depended on to provide love reliably. Either re ­buffed by their parents or subjected to fickle and erratic attention (seductive one moment and dep ­recating the next) these children give up as far as trusting and investing in others as love-objects. Rather than rely on the capriciousness of others or risk their rejection, these youngsters avoid the lasting attachment they achingly desire and de ­cide instead that it is only themselves they can trust and therefore love. In light of current debates within psychoana ­lytic circles, it is important to note that the devel ­opmental origin of the term narcissism described here was only one of several concepts that Freud posited as the source of libidinal self-cathexis. Moreover, the paper was not written for the purpose of formulating either a narcissistic personal ­ity type or a narcissistic character structure. Rather, Freuds interest lay in exploring and elaborating variations in both the development and the nature of libidinal cathexis. As far as clinical syn ­dromes were concerned, he referred in this paper to characteristics observed among paraphrenics (paranoid schizophrenics), megalomaniacs, and hypochondriacs. When Freud wrote, for the first time in 1931, about narcissistic libidinal type, he de ­scribed this individual as follows: The main interest is focused on self-preservation; the type is independent and not easily overawed, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦People of this type impress others, being personalities; it is on them that their fellow men are specially likely to lean; they readily as ­sume the role of leader, give a fresh stimulus to cultural development or break down existing con ­ditions. (p. 249) What is striking in this quote is Freuds charac ­terization of the narcissists strength and confi ­dence, especially since it contrasts so markedly with the low self-esteem, feelings of emptiness, pain, and depression that certain of his recent disci ­ples (Forman, 1975; Kohut, 1971) attribute to this personality, Disparities in characterizations such as these often arise as a consequence of shifts in Freuds formulations from one period to another: over his productive and long career. In this case, it can be traced to the fact that Freud identified sev ­eral origins of narcissistic self-cathexis, only one of which is the type of parental caprice and rejec ­tion that may lead to feelings of emptiness and low self-esteem. As evident from earlier excerpts, and as later elaborated further, Freuds description of the narcissistic libidinal type, brief though it is, corresponds much more closely to the DSM-III portrayal of the narcissistic personality than do several contemporary characterizations that trace their antecedents to either parental rebuff or unreliability. Relevant to this issue is a Freuds view that that narcissistic self-investment is more likely to be a prod ­uct of parental overvaluation than of parental devaluation. Moving back somewhat to the 1920s, we find three analytically oriented theorists who addressed the concept of a narcissistic personality. Wilhelm Reich claimed to have first formulated what he termed the phallic-narcissistic character at a Vienna Psychoanalytic Society meeting in 1926, although Waelder (1925) made reference to narcis ­sistic personality features in an earlier paper focusing on the mechanisms of the psychotic process. According to Kernberg (1967) narcissists present an unusual degree of self-ref ­erence in their interactions with other people, a great need to be loved and admired by others and a curious apparent contradiction between a very in ­flated concept of themselves and an inordinate need for tribute from others. Their emotional life is shallow. They experience little empathy for the feelings of others, they obtain very little enjoyment from life other than from the tributes they receive from others or from their own grandiose fantasies, and they feel restless and bored when external glit ­ter wears off and no new sources feed their self  ­regard. They envy others, tend to idealize some people from whom they expect narcissistic supplies, and to depreciate and treat with contempt those from whom they do not expect anything (often their former idols). In general, their relationships with other people are clearly exploitative and sometimes parasitic. It is as if they feel they have the right to control and possess others and to exploit them with ­out guilt feelings, and behind a surface which very often is charming and engaging, one senses coldness and ruthlessness. Very often such patients are considered to be dependent because they need so much tribute and adoration from others, but on a deeper level they are completely unable really to de ­pend on anybody because of their deep distrust and depreciation of other. (p. 655) Kernberg (1967) asserted that the haughty and grandiose constellation of behaviors that charac ­terizes the narcissist is a defense against the pro ­jection of oral rage that, in turn, stems from the narcissists incapacity to depend on inter ­nalized good objects. In this etiologic formula ­tion, Kernberg claimed that the experiential background of most narcissists includes chroni ­cally cold parental figures who exhibit either in ­difference or covert, but spitefully aggressive, attitudes toward their children. At the same time, the young, future narcissist is often found to pos ­sess some special talent or status within the fam ­ily, such as playing the role of genius or being the only child. This quality of specialness serves as a refuge, at first only temporarily but ultimately an often-returned-to haven that reli ­ably offsets the underlying feeling of having been unloved by the vengefully rejecting parent. Kernberg (1975) describes the following pointwise eleven characteristics of narcissistic personality: Excessive self absorption. Superficially smooth, appropriate and effective social adaptation covering profound distortions in internal relations with other people. Intense ambitiousness. Grandiose fantasies existing side by side with feelings of inferiority. Over dependence on external admiration and acclaim. Feelings of boredom and emptiness. Endless search for gratification of strivings for brilliance, wealth, power and beauty. Incapacity to love to be concerned or to be empathic toward others. Chronic uncertainty and dissatisfaction about oneself. Exploitativeness and ruthlessness toward others. Chronic, intense envy, and defenses against such envy e.g., devaluation, omnipotent central and narcissistic withdrawal. Kohuts Approach Kohuts (1971) views are more difficult to summa ­rize than those of Kernberg, perhaps as a conse ­quence of their greater originality. Despite having been written in esoteric, if not obscure, psychoanalytic jargon and having been formulated in an ingenious, if at times ponderous and tautological fashion, Kohuts work has attracted numerous disciples. Fortunately, a score of in ­terpreters have sought to elucidate his metapsy ­chological assertions, which many consider among the more imaginative advances in recent analytic theory (Forman, 1975; Gedo Gold ­berg, 1973; Palombo, 1976; Wolf, 1976). Kohut (1971) rejects the traditional Freudian and Kernbergian thesis that narcissistic self-investment re ­sults from a defensive withdrawal of object-love attachments following a pattern of chronic parental coldness or vengeful spite. This classical view con ­tends that narcissism is a result of developmental arrests or regressions to earlier points of fixation. Thus, the future narcissist, according to standard analytic metapsychology, regresses to or fails to progress through the usual developmental sequence of initial undifferentiated libido, followed by auto ­eroticism, narcissism, and, finally, object-love. It is not the content as such but the sequence of libidinal maturation that Kohut challenges. His clinical ob ­servations have led him to assert that the primitive narcissistic libido has its own developmental line and sequence of continuity into adulthood. That is, it does not fade away by becoming transformed into object-libido, as contended by classical theo ­ri sts, but unfolds into its own set of mature narcis ­sistic processes and structures. In healthy form, for example, these processes might include behaviors such as humor and creativity; similarly, and most significantly, it is through this narcissistic develop ­mental sequence that the cohesive psychic structure of self ultimately emerges. Pathology in narcissistic development, according to Kohut, occurs as a consequence of failures to in ­tegrate one of two major spheres of self-maturation, the grandiose self and the idealized parental image. Confronted by realistic shortcomings that undermine early feelings of grandiose omnipotence, or subsequently recognizing the equally illusory na ­ture of the idealized powers they have attributed to their parents, these children must find a way to overcome their disappointments so as not to fragment If disillusioned, rejected, or experienc ­ing cold and unempathic care at the earliest stages of self-development, serious pathology, such as psy ­chotic or borderline states, will occur. Trauma or disappointment at a later phase will have somewhat different repercussions depending on whether the difficulty centered on the development of the grandiose self or on the parental imago. In the for ­mer, the child will fail to develop the sense of ful ­fillment and self-confiden ce that comes from I feeling worthwhile and valued; as a consequence, these needs will split off and result in the persis ­tent seeking of narcissistic recognition through adulthood. Along the second line of self-develop ­ment, children who are unable to idealize their par ­ents because of the latters indifference or rejection will feel devastated, depressed, and empty. Through adulthood, they will seek idealized parental surro ­gates who, inevitably, will fail to live up to the om ­nipotent powers the narcissists hoped to find within them. In their desperate search for an ideal that is greater than themselves, they are often led to be ­ have in a weak and self-effacing manner that will enable others to overshadow them. What is notable is that Kohuts is a developmen ­tal theory of self and not a personality characterization. Nevertheless, it leads to a clinical picture that at variance with those of Freud, Kernberg, and the DSM..III and IV. The features that emerge from Kohuts descriptions have been summarized by Forman (1975). Listed among the more promi ­nent are (a) low self-esteem, (b) tendencies toward periodic hypochondriasis, and (c) feelings of emptiness or deadness. Bursten (1973) has sought to distinguish four personality variants within the narcissistic grouping, speaking of them as the craving, paranoid, ma ­nipulative, and phallic types, He refers to the craving variety as clinging, demanding, often pouting and whining (p. 290). Those labelled paranoid narcissists correspond with general descrip ­tions of the paranoid personality. Manipulative narcissists encompass a large segment of what are referred to as antisocial personalities in the DSM-II. The fourth subtype, phallic narcissists, describes patients who are exhibitionistic, reckless, cold, and arrogant. In seeking to contrast borderline from narcissistic personalities, Bursten makes reference to the distinction as bearing on the cohesiveness of self. Elaborating this distinction, he speaks of the narcissistic personality as comprisingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a group of people whose sense of self is suffi ­ciently cohesive that they do not suffer from these types of fragility problems, The striking feature of this cluster of personality types centers around self-esteem, They maintain an intense interest in themselves and harbor both grandiose fantasies, al ­beit not to a delusional extent, and the need to as ­sociate with powerful figures, When one frustrates their vanity or their need for an ideal parent, they become dysfunctional-they suffer severe dis ­appointment, depression, rage, and hypochondria ­sis, They may even have fleeting episodes of confusion, but such mental disintegration is very brief and does not have the prominence and the persistence of people whose personalities fall in the borderline cluster. To be noted, cohesiveness of their sense of self is maintained by the intensity focus on themselves. (Bursten 1973, p. 414). Drawing on Burstens conceptions of self ­ cohesiveness, Adler (1981) elaborates further on the continuum of narcissistic and borderline personalities: Borderline patients have serious difficulties in maintaining stable self-object transferences as well as a sense of self-cohesivenessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Patients with narcissistic personality disorders on the upper end of the continuum are able to main ­tain self-cohesiveness, except for transient fragmentation. These fragmentation experiences can often be examined in the therapeutic situation with ­out serious disruptionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Finally, patients with a narcissistic personality disorder do not experience the feelings of aloneness experienced by borderline patients. From the borderline patient capable of a serious regression at one end of the continuum to the patient with a stable narcissistic personality disorder at the other end, we can evaluate our patients, using cohesiveness of the self; self-object transference stability, and the achievement of aloneness. (pp. 47-48) Coopers Approach Cooper (1984, 1988, 1989) has written exten ­sively on different facets of the narcissistic char ­acter, describing aspects of its development, the central role of an integrated self-image, and its in ­tertwining with masochistic like tendencies. In each sphere, his Insights have been unusually as ­tute and his themes both scholarly and eloquently expressed. Speaking of the importance of an integrated self-image, Cooper (1984) writes: A vital aspect of normal self-development is the achievement of an internalized, integrated self image (p.46) Different workers have referred to these integrative capacities and failures .in a variety of ways Kohut spoke of enfeebled selves lacking co ­hesion, Kernberg speaks of splits in self-represen ­tations. Erikson referred to identity diffusion, and winnicott spoke of the false Self. Under many different headings, every investigator in this area has emphasized the core importance of the cre ­ation of a unified, coherent, integrated i nner sense of self. (p. 47) Describing the intermeshing of narcissistic and masochistic pathology, Cooper (1989) comments: Frustrations of narcissistic strivings lead to repara ­tive attempts to maintain omnipotent fantasiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.Self esteem takes on a pathological quality when an individual begins to derive satisfaction from mas ­tery of his own humiliations. A pattern of deriv ­ing pleasure out of displeasure has begun. This pattern provides the groundwork for the later clini ­cal picture of . . . the injustice collector. These individuals are basically narcissistic- ­masochistic characters and their analysis regularly reveals that narcissistic defenses of grandiosity and entitlement are used to ward off masochistic tenden ­cies toward self-abasement and self-damage. (p. 314) Taking issue with the descriptively narrow for ­mulations of the narcissistic personality in the DSM, Cooper and Sacks (1991) offer the following comments: The diagnostic features are a caricature not a clinical picture. The core issue is a conflict over self-esteem in defense of self-inflation. This grandiosity is more or less fragile or becomes more or less pathologically unrealistic when threats to self-esteem and self-representation .are present in the form of criticism tasks beyond ones capacity, etc. These patients often have a slippery ethical sys ­tem, not out of intent to exploit, but out of the need to hide flaws and keep their defects secret. Narcissistic characters also have frequent paranoid tendencies, again arising out of the need to hide im ­perfections. The sense of needing to feel perfect is as much a part of the picture as grandiosity, which is an overt characteristic. (p.3) Akhtar and Thomsans Approach In a series of particularly insightful papers, Akhtar and Thomson (1982) have sought to bring the scattered literature on the narcissi into a multifaceted profile, including their characteristic overt and covert features in six areas of psychoso ­cial functioning. In a recent book, Akhtar (1992) indicates that narcissists appear overtly grandiose, exploitative, seductive and articulate. Covertly, however, they are doubt-ridden, envious of others; chronically bored corruptible, and unable to love. Akhtars format for differentiating the overt from the covert is an extremely helpful distinction owing to the disparity that exists among many narcissists between their self-presentations and their intrapsychic doubts. Gundersons Approach Another important contributor in the narcissistic personality literature is Gunderson (1983; Gunderson Ronningstam, 1991, Gunderson. Ronningstam, 1991 Smith. In summarizing the features of the narcissist, he includes several criteria (Gunderson Ronningstam, 1991): Narcissistic patients are usually talented and have had sustained periods of successful academic employment, or creative achievement, This is frequently a source for their sense of superiority, It is also a reason why they are more apt to appear in private practice settings than in either institutions or clinics. Narcissistically disturbed patients reported histories in which they have reacted with hostility and suspicion to the perception of other peoples envy toward them. They believe that because of envy other peoples envy toward them. They believe that because of envy other people have set out to hurt them spoil their work, diminish their achievements, or criticize them behind their back. Feelings of devaluation/or contempt may occur toward many people but are especially evident to ­ward anyone why they believe has betrayed or oth ­erwise disappointed them. These become sustained attitudes of dislike or dismissal. (pp. 114-115) Stones Approach Another astute contemporary theorist. Stone (1993) further amplifies the divergent back ­grounds and psychic states of the narcissist as the following: Narcissistic traits can develop, curiously, when there are deviations from ideal rearing on either side: pampering or neglecting; expecting too much or too little. Excessive praise of a child . . . can give rise to . . . feelings of superiority, of being destined for greatness. . . . But compensatory feel ­ings of a similar kind can arise where there has been parental indifference and neglect, for in this situation a child may develop an exaggerated de ­sire for greatness by way of shoring up a sense of self-worth in the absence of the ordinary parental praise. Whereas the overly praised child may regard himself as better than he really is, the neglected child may present a dual picture: an outward sense of (compensatory) specialness cov ­ering an inward sense worthlessness. (p. 260) Learys Approach: Timothy Leary (1957), a disciple of Homey and others of the social and interpersonal school of thought, extended their notions to what he terms adjustment through competition. Leary speaks of this pattern as demonstrating a competitive self-confident narcissism, described in the follow ­ing quotes: In its maladaptive extreme it becomes a smug, cold, selfish, exploitive social role. In this case the adaptive self-confidence and independence be ­come exaggerated into a self-oriented rejection of othersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The individuals feel most secure when they are independent of other peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The narcissist putsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦distance between himself and others- wants to be independent of and superior to the other one. Dependence is terrifying. (p. 332) The second group of . . . patients . . . are those whose self-regard has received a decent defeat. They often report the most colorful and fearful symptomatology . . . The superficial impression of depression or dependence is deceptive. Psychologi ­cal testing or perceptive interviewing will reveal that the patients are not as anxious or depressed as they appear. What becomes evident is a narcissistic concern with their own reactions, their own sensi ­tivities. The precipitating cause for their entrance to the clinic is usually a shift in their life situation, which causes frustration or a blow to their pride. (p. 335) Benjamins Approach Following the interpersonal perspective of Leary are a number of interpersonally oriented theorists who drafted their model of various personality disorders in highly fruitful work. Notable among this group is Benjamin (1993), who has formulated a complex analysis of the narcis ­sistic character. In her recent work, she describes this personality as follows: There is extreme vulnerability to criticism or being ignored, together with a strong wish for love, sup ­port, and admiring deference from others. The baseline position involves noncontingent love of self and presumptive control of others. If the support is withdrawn, or if there is any evidence of lack of perfection, the self-concept degrades to severe self-criticism. Totally lacking in empathy, these persons treat others with contempt, and hold the self above and beyond the fray. (p. 147) [The narcissist] expects to be given whatever he or she wants and needs, no matter what it might mean to others. This does not include active decep ­tion, but rather is a consequence of the belief that he or she is entitled. For example, the NPD would not set out to con a little old lady out of her life savings; however, if she offered them, the NPD would accept such a gift without reflection about its impact on her. [He/She] will expect great dedication, overwork, and heroic performance from the people associated with him or her without giving any thought to the impact of this pattern in their lives. (p. 150) Beck and Freemans Approach Contributing the insightful analysis of the nar ­cissistic personality from a cognitive point of view. Beck and Freeman (1990) provide the following proposal concerning this individuals dis ­torted belief system: The core narcissistic beliefs are as follows: Since I am special, I deserve special dispensations, privi ­leges, and prerogatives, Im superior to others and they should acknowledge this, Im above the rules. Their main strategies consist of doing whatever they can to reinforce their superior status and to expand their personal domain. Thus, they may seek glory, wealth, position, power, and prestige as a way of continuously reinforcing their superior image. Their main affect is anger when other people do not accord them the admiration or respect that they believe they are entitled to, or otherwise thwart them in some way. They are prone to becom ­ing depressed, however, if their strategies are foiled. (Beck Freeman 1990. p. 50) Narcissistic Personality Disorder can be conceptualized as stemming from a combination of dysfunctional schemas about the self, the world, and the future. The early founda ­tion of these schemas is developed by direct and indirect messages from parents, siblings, and sig ­nificant others, and by experiences that mold beliefs about personal uniqueness and self-impor ­tanceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Narcissists regard themselves as spe ­cial, exceptional, and justified in focusing exclusively on personal gratification; they expect admiration, deference, and compliance from oth ­ers, and their expectations of the future focus on the realization of grandiose fantasies. At the same time, beliefs about the importance of other peoples feelings are conspicuously lacking. Be ­havior is affected by deficits in cooperation and reciprocal social interaction, as well as by ex ­cesses in demanding, self-indulgent, and some ­times aggressive behaviors. (p. 238). In writing theories of narcissistic personality disorder, the stereotyped pattern was not adopted. Rather, attempt was made to present the view of clinicians, theoreticians and social thinkers. Highlights are given below: Psycho dynamically oriented theorists conclude that the narcissistic disorders are the product of emotionally unhealthy parent child relationship. The cold and callous mother/father produce a sense of rejection and unworthiness in child with he result that such a child spends his life defending himself that he is good and loved child and he deserves admiration and attention form all others around him. Object-relation theorists are basically psychodynamically oriented. They are as a matter of fact both derivatives and deviationists. Since they give much more importance to mother-child relationship than what is commonly given to parent-child relationship, they are described as object-relation (mother-child relation) theorists. According to object-relation theorists, negative relationship between mother-child relationship has negative impact on the growing negative personality of the child. Generally such a child develops a grandiose self-image, consequently, illusion of self-sufficiency and freedom from parental restriction is reported. Such a child is much prone to narcissistic personality tendencies. Those who give importance both to behavioural and cognitive aspects or personality development do not approve the extreme sides of child-rearing practices. They approve neither too much love nor too much negligence. Extremity of approach to the child is held to be a responsible factor in the development of narcissistic disorder. In support of this proposition, first born/the only born child who is generally over-loved is said to be prone to the development of narcissistic tendencies. Socio-cultural theorists hold that in a society where freedom of living life in the way parents are living is not questioned, adolescents feel free to adopt individualistic life-pattern. In other words, narcissism is held to have link with fading interest in ones culture. That is, where individualism is preferred to collectivism, where new values are getting recognition, narcissistic lifestyle is very likely to gain strong ground. It may be summarized that articles and books have been written about narcissistic personality disorders from two opposite perspectives. The first perspective is psycho, analytic theory which suggests that personalities are compensating for inadequate affection and approval from their parents in early childhood (Kernberg, 1975; Kohut, 1972). The second perspective is social learning perspective (Millon, 1969, 1981) which holds that narcissistic personality disorders are the product of home life, created by parents who have inflated views of their childrens intelligence, achievements, and beauty of face, figure and complexion.

Computer Intelligence :: essays research papers fc

Can computers think independently and do they have â€Å"minds†? This question has been the topic of countless, bad movies since the 1950s as well as a number of science fiction novels. We all believe that we have minds. It is something that is taken for granted but what exactly is a mind and are humans the only to possess them? Ever since the invention of the computer, they have been a mystery, even to the smartest of scientists. With the ongoing development of artificial intelligence and high population of computer literate people, the possibility of computers with minds must be re-evaluated. The initial question that must be answered before tackling the mind/computer problem is how do you define a mind? This is something that philosophers have been trying to answer for hundreds of years, long before the invention of the computer. Renee Descartes supported the concept of ‘dualism’ which is the belief that the mind is a separate non-physical entity associated with the body during its life. On the other hand, behaviorism holds the notion that the mind does not exist but rather patterns of behavior and our pre-dispositions to such behavior. Functionalism is another school of thought that has come to light recently and draws its theory from computer technology. Functionalism believes that the mind is simply a program and the body, its hardware. With all the different theories, none of them have been able to answer the question on whether computers are similar enough to the human brain to have intelligence. The think the simplest definition for intelligence is the ability to adapt. You can tell a computer to go to a specific IP address but if IBM’s address is no longer www.ibm.com, the computer does not know how to find the new one. More specifically, it can be said that intelligence is the to take into consideration the circumstances of completing a certain task. Alan Turing, a mathematician, sought to answer the question on whether or not computers possess intelligence. The Turing Test asked people to communicate with something or someone that they could not see. The people engaged in the communication were then asked identify whether they were talking to a machine or a human. If the test subjects thought themselves to be conversing with a human when they were really engaged with a machine, then the computer was thought to have intelligence. This test is inherently flawed.

Caesars Gallic Wars

Sanders Walker Dr. Bishop Western Civilization 103-104 11/20/12 Caesars Conquest Caesar is known as one of the greatest military leaders in history. His was General and later, Ruler of Rome during its peak years. Caesar is known for his military strategy and conquest of much of ancient Europe. Where Caesar made a name for himself was his conquest of the Gauls. Caesars conquest of Gaul consisted of many campaigns throughout northern Europe; the most notable being the battles of Avaricum, Gergovia, and the final battle in Alesia.Caesar and Vercingetorix, the leader of the Gauls, were both similar in ambition. How does Caesar fair strategically against Vercingetorix and the Gauls at the battles of Avaricum, Gergovia and, Alesia? Caesars conquest of Gaul was indeed his most difficult one. Gaul consisted of dozens of tribes and much of the territory being Northern Europe had never been explored before by the Romans. A great amount of pressure was put on Caesar by himself to conquer Gaul.H e was in deep political debt to Rome and its leaders, and he saw the conquest of Gaul to the best way to get out of debt and make a name for himself. Caesar making the first [1]Triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey gained the power of the election and became consul for the year 59 B. C. During this year he was made, â€Å"Governor of Illyricum, or Dalmatia, and of Gaul, that is to say of Gallia Cisalpina† (Pg. 40), this land is really known as a Province that Caesar acquired. Caesar having acquired these lands, but not officially having control, sought to conquer the inhabitants.Caesar is described as, â€Å"In person he was tall and slight, but well-knit; and, if he was as licentious as the mass of his contemporaries, his constitution, fortified by abstemious habits, was capable of sustaining prodigious efforts. His broad dome-like skull ; his calm and penetrating eyes ; his aquiline nose ; his massive yet finely moulded jaw, expressed, like no other human countenance, a rich and harmonious nature, aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬  intellect, passion, will moving in accord. And, if his vices were common, his generosity, his forbearance, his [2]equanimity, his magnanimity were his own.He believed, with an unwavering faith, that above himself there was a power, without whose aid the strongest judgement, the most diligent calculation might fail. That power was Fortune; and Caesar was assured that Fortune was ever on his side† (Pg. 41). Caesar was extremely ambitious and refused to be undermined by his enemies, this is probably why his conquest against overwhelming odds was so successful. As Caesar dealt with his issues in Rome, there was word that newly acquired provinces in Gaul were going to be marched on by the Helvetti.Caesar left Rome as soon as possible, cutting through the Alps to reach the province of Geneva (Cisalpine/Transalpine province). Caesar legions linked up with the legion of that province and destroyed the bridge or Rhine leading to Geneva. Helvetii sent requests to pass through, but Caesar denied them. Caesar waited out the requests as levies were created and simply denied the crossing of the Helvetii. Some tried to force themselves over, but failed miserably in doing so. Caesar crossed back gathering more legions for his command.Caesar dispersed his legions with Lieutenants into different regions of Gual, with his plan being to divide the already disbanded Gallic tribes. Caesar returned to Rome and received great praise for his victory over the Helvetii. Caesar marches back towards northern Europe in 58 B. C where Ariovistus and his massive hordes of Germanic soldiers, had become a threat to Caesars campaign against the Gauls outside the town of Vesontio. The legions lacking rest and supplies and fearing Ariovistus, was taking its toll on Caesars men.A panic amongst the legionnaires ensued; Caesar immediately puts to work his persona. Giving a riveting speech to the legions, he regained the confidence overwhelmingly. There on ly several miles separating Caesar and Ariovistus, but many Cavalry skirmishes took place as Caesar tried time and again to force the Germanics to fight. Ariovistus requested several meetings with Caesar, the first resulting in failure due to lack of compromises, and the second because Caesar never attended. Ariovistus refused to fight before the New Moon, Caesar finding this out attacked early forcing the Germans to fight.Caesar having command of the right wing of the legions, had planned on attacking the opposing Germans left wing which was supposedly their weak point. Ariovistus and the German horde fell upon the Roman legions quickly leaving huge gaps between the legions. This prevented the Roman javelins to be thrown. The Germans formed a, â€Å"[3]phalanxes† (Pg. 66), which was a wall of men inclosing themselves in a shielded wall. The Romans made quick dismemberment of this wall of shields as the Romans, â€Å"Dug their swords down into them† (Pg. 66), leading t o the German left wing falling back.The left wing of the Roman legion however was beginning to give up ground. In command of the Caesars cavalry was Publius Crassus, the son of the famed triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus. Publius Crassus led the 3rd line of the cavalry in and quickly rerouted the German onslaught on the Roman left wing. This led to the victory over Ariovistus and the Germanic army. With later victorious campaigns over Aquitani, Usipetes, Tencteri and Atuatuca from 56-54 B. C. Caesar believes Gaul is won and return to Rome to gain political power. While Caesar believed Gaul to be, â€Å"tranquillized† (Pg. 29), or rather under control as Caesar had planned to make all of Gaul a Roman province. The Gallic chieftains discussed in great detail of what was to become of Gaul if something was not done. A rumor quickly spread through Gaul in 52 B. C that Clodius had been murdered and violent riots broke out all over Gaul. The Gallic chieftains of Carnute made quick us e of time while Caesar was still in Rome; a small group of Carnutes stormed into the town of Cenabum and killed Roman merchants and a commissariat officer of Caesars as well.In the Gallic town of Gergovia, a young Gallic noble came to power. His name was Vercingetorix and he quickly assumed dominance throughout Gaul. Vercingetorix was very impressionable and ambitious, much like Caesar. He soon united all Gaul sparking a massive rebellion in 52 B. C. Caesar observed Vercingetorix and saw that he was vastly becoming a huge threat. Roman provinces in peril began to fall due to lack of supplies, But Caesar moved swiftly from Rome to rescue the provinces. Caesar stopped the invasion of Narbo. Caesar still needed to regroup with his legions in the north.Caesars being the brilliant military leader he was, planned to march north through mountains of [4]Cevennes into the land of Vercingetorix, where the land Agedincum was. The journey was rough for Caesars men under the harsh conditions of winter, but to Caesars advantage, Vercingetorix did not realize where the Romans were or where they were going. As Romans came through the mountains, â€Å"Caesar’s horsemen swept over the country in small parties, carrying fire and sword† (Pg. 135), Caesar anticipated that Vercingetorix would come to Agedincums relieve, and he did so reluctantly while Caesar proceeded north to regroup with his legions.Once Caesar had gathered his legions he awaited Vercingetorix next move. Vercingetorix recovered from the Romans strategic maneuvering, decided to go south, opposite of Caesars position and siege Gorgobina an allies of Caesars provinces. Vercingetorix figured this, â€Å"To strike at Caesar’s allies would be equivalent to striking at Caesar himself† (Pg. 136). This indeed was true it was imperative that Caesar could not lose the trust of his allies, but Caesar also knew that pursuing hundreds of miles south without enough supplies would put his legions at r isk of starvation. Caesar contemplated this and decided to relieve Gorgobina.Caesar instead of taking the same route he took to come north he went around in attempt for revenge for the massacre of Roman citizens. Caesar went about it, â€Å"More-over, by ravaging the lands of Carnutes and Bituriges, he might count on forcing Vercingetorix to relax his hold on Gorgobina† (Pg. 137). Caesar captured Vellaunodunum and approached Cenabum with rage as Romans set [5]Cenabum ablaze as supplies were given up to the legions while Caesar marched onwards to Avaricum. Vercingetorix believed the only way to weaken Caesars onslaught through his land was to burn and destroy any resources ahead of Caesar.The Gauls did not receive the news very optimistically. Burning down towns and crops was a harsh method of slowing down the Romans, but Vercingetorix got the Gauls to agree, with this speech he made, â€Å"They must make up their minds to sacrifice their own interest for the national weal. E very hamlet, every barn where the enemy could find provender must be burned to the ground. Even the towns must be destroyed, save those which were impregnable, lest they should tempt men who ought to be in the field to go to them for shelter, and lest the Romans plunder their stores† (Pg. 139).The Gauls still however thought to defend Avaricum rather than burn it to the ground. Avaricum was surrounded by walls and marshes and moats. Caesar made his encampment south of Avaricum several hundred yards out. Caesar realized the only way to siege Avaricum was to build siege towers and terraces. The marshes could not serve as proper platforms so, â€Å"in order to provide a secure foundation, the ground was cleared of obstructions and leveled as far as possible by men working inside stout huts† (Pg. 140). Wooden shields protected men relaying material through, â€Å"lines of sheds† (Pg. 40), as it was said to have taken several weeks to construct the towers. The effects of Vercingetorix burning of Gallic resources began to take its toll on Caesars legions. The Romans supplies began to dwindle and as Caesar sent men out to gather supplies and resources, Vercingetorix had patrols keep track of Caesars movements. Caesar was surrounded and while they waited to attack Avaricum, his men killed the cattle for food. Caesar did all he could to keep his legions spirits up, he would tell them, â€Å"He would abandon the siege† (Pg. 141), but the legionnaires were stubbornly loyal.A small attack was made on the towers, but only set the construction a day behind. The following day Caesar conducted his siege of Avaricum. The siege took no time at all with the Romans climbing the walls, they realized it was pointless to go down into the city, but rather, â€Å"They lined the wall round; and not a man of them would come down. Throwing away their weapons, the Gauls ran for their lives through the town to its furthest extremity; and there many jostling one another in the narrow gateways, were slaughtered, while others, who shouldered their way out were cut down by the cavalry† (Pg. 146).This was indeed a massacre by the Romans; no one was spared not man women or child. The Romans found a multitude of resources such as corn and other supplies. The Gauls were outraged by this massacre at [6]Avaricum. Caesar had hoped to break the Gallic pride with this victory, but it did quite the opposite. Vercingetorix following the massacre made a speech and a promise to Gaul. This speech gave Gaul a new found enragement and confidence. Caesar marched south to Gergovia, Vercingetorix homeland. Once Vercingetorix got word of Caesars movement he quickly destroyed all bridges along the river leaving only the bottom intact.As the Gauls caught up with Caesar, the Romans found it impossible to repair the bridges with the Gauls watching. Caesar was forced to come up with another diversion; under the cover of darkness he moved opposite of one of the b ridges, and in the morning, â€Å"he took forty out of the sixty cohorts, composing his force; arrayed them in six divisions, so that seen from a distance, they would look like the six legions† (Pg. 149). With Caesar outwitting Vercingetorix, he moved south toward the mountain of Gergovia.As Caesar approached Gergovia a cavalry skirmish ensues, but the Gallic cavalry of Vercingetorix is forced back in the stronghold of Gergovia. Gergovia was going to prove to be another difficult siege due to its geography, â€Å"The town stood on an oblong plateau, which formed the summit, extending about seven furlongs from east to west, and six hundred yards wide† (Pg. 150). The town also had an outer wall as well, but the weak point appeared to be the southern wall. There were two large encampments in Gergovia, the smallest was on the southern wall, while the main encampment was on the steepest part of Gergovian wall.Caesar under the cover of night had several divsions move up the southern wall having Vercingetorix think that was where the main attack would be. Caesars full-scale attack actually occurred on the eastern or steepest side with Vercingetorix largest encampment was. The Gauls were caught off guard, â€Å"but the Romans deceived by their armour, took them for enemies: the Gauls were closing in up them on every side† (Pg. 158). As the Romans became overwhelmed they came back down the southern hillside, the Gauls followed blindly, as the Gauls were struck by left and right flanks of Caesars [7]10th legion.The battle on the hill was devastating on sides, 46 centurions and approximately 700 legionnaire’s dead and thousands wounded. Caesar disbanded the siege and tried to return to Rome to regroup and gather supplies and men. After the Gergovia the people of Gaul still had their faith in Vercingetorix, he was re-elected Commander and Chief. Caesar is further planning his campaign decided to enlist a large number of German cavalry to his as sortment. During the entire Gallic Wars, Caesar has been outnumbered almost 3 to 1 and sometimes 4 to 1 odds, but Caesars strategy is what has been proving key in battles; the quality of men over numbers.As Caesar marches toward the provinces, Vercingetorix in a sudden ignorant act of boldness ascends his infantry and small cavalry head on attacking Caesars Roman legions. Caesar staying calm, â€Å"He sent his cavalry, in three divisions, to repel the triple attack† (Pg. 168). The Gauls retreated to Alesia with Caesars legions following close behind night and day. As the Romans reach Alesia Caesar informs his men that this battle will be a, â€Å"toilsome effort† (Pg. 170). Caesar realized that Alesia could only be taken by what he called, â€Å"a line of investment, fully nine miles in length, along which a ring of camps was constructed† (Pg. 70), this was a series of circumvallations: trenches, ramparts, entrenchments, and barriers built around Alesia with cav alry on low ground and legion infantry on high slopes. The Romans being few in number did not have enough men or cavalry to guard the surrounding blockade of Alesia. Vercingetorix realizing that he was being closed in with four Roman legions linking up with Caesars six legions, Vercingetorix had to get help somehow. Under the cover of darkness Vercingetorix sent out Gauls to every region and, â€Å"bring back with them every man who could wield a sword† (Pg. 171). He also reminded them not to abandon the Gallic cause.Caesar had been given news of Vercingetorix call for relief armies, by group of deserters. Caesar understood that he too was surrounded by all of Gaul, but it was still uncertain whether the relief armies would show up for Vercingetorix. Unlike the Romans who had proven loyalty and precision in battle, the Gauls even though united, were still undisciplined and lacked the skill of a Roman legionnaire. Caesar seeing the potential threat from the surrounding mountai ns proceeded to build entrenchments and barriers to his rear and on the western slope of Alesia where an open meadow was located.Caesars men made haste with the construction of barriers and traps like, â€Å"five rows of strong boughs were fixed in each, with one end protruding above ground, sharpened and with the branches projecting so as to form a kind of [8]abatis† (Pg. 139/Part I). Caesar also had traps under the ground surface, â€Å"In front of them and rising a few inches above the ground, but purposely concealed by brushwood, were sharp pointed logs embedded in small pits† (Pg. 139/Part I), as there were also barbed spikes lying under the turf. Caesar moved quickly to gather as much corn and resources as he could, knowing that this battle may very well be the last.Meanwhile inside the wall of Alesia Vercingetorix had the grain thrown into a single stock; as the grain would be dispersed among the soldiers rather than the citizens. A council of Gallic Chieftains gathered at an assembly to discuss Vercingetorix situation in Alesia and how he had requested a, â€Å"universal levy† (Pg. 173), or a mass of armies combined. It was heavily debated because many tribes were at conflict with Germanic tribes or resolving domestic problems; some simply refused to send any army. In all about 43 tribes joined in with a massive cavalry as well.Four generals were given command of the 250,000 Gauls as it was said there was, â€Å"No one leader of sufficient eminence to command universal respect† (Pg. 174), this would be proven decisively. As the relief army of Gaul marched towards Alesia, days away, the city was going into famine. The chieftains proposed the method of cannibalism as said, â€Å"That their fathers, when driven into the fastnesses by the Cimbri and Teutoni, had sustained life by feeding upon the flesh of those who were useless for warfare† (Pg. 175). It was rather decided that the weak, young, and old were citizens of th e town, were to be exiled.The hopeless looking women and children, and elderly came down to the Roman blockade. Caesars blockade forbid no-one to pass through; the exiled inhabitants were not taken in, instead Caesar had them sent back or stay between the lines of the wall and blockade to perish. The relief army soon arrives passing through the mountain valley, they could be seen from miles away as a mass of cavalry and infantry. Commius leading the Gallic mass launched a cavalry assault on Caesars rear defenses as Vercingetorix attacked from the inner defenses from [9]Alesia.The Roman legions held strong repelling the Gallic cavalry with Caesars brilliant defensive military strategy. The Romans formed a compact body of infantry and split the Gallic cavalry’s onslaught into disarray. The one major advantage the Caesar had over all the Gauls it was the reliable communication he had with his commanders of his legions. The Romans were on point and deadly, as the first day was wo n by Caesar. A 24 hour period of cease fire took place, and this time under the cover of darkness the Gauls launched a surprise attack on the Roman blockade using loud shouts to alert the rest of the Gallic army.The Gauls attempted to siege the blockade walls with grappling-hooks and ladders they attempted to overpower the blockades. In between the defensive lines the Gauls were dismembered by the wooden spikes and traps placed along the lines. Two sections of the Gallic army failed to cooperate with the rest of the mass due to poor [10]communication during the night. Roman artillery took apart the Gauls in between the defenses as casualties mounted because of poor effectiveness during the night raid. The Gauls retreated before dawn, fearing a flank from the right.Vercingetorix and Caesar refused to give into each other with casualties piling up on both parties, neither side budged. The soldiers of both sides were describes as they fought, â€Å"Every man fought like a hero; for th ey knew that from the heights around friends and enemies alike were anxiously watching† (Pg. 176). Vercingetorix and the Gauls planned for a final assault on the Romans. Vercingetorix discovered a weak spot in the Roman blockade where Caesars men were unable to build a barrier. The Gauls with no delay assaulted the weak point with 60,000 Gallic warriors against only two legions.The Romans became heavily overwhelmed and in disarray with 60,000 Gauls attacking from the rear and Vercingetorix army attacking from the inner walls. The Romans in panic and disorganization were described as, â€Å"painfully distracted by the roar of battle in their rear; for both on the inner and the outer line men felt, as they fought, that they would perish if their comrades behind suffered the enemy to break through† (Pg. 178). It was difficult for the Roman legions to mass together due to the overwhelming Gallic numbers. Vercassivellaunus, commanding the 60,000 Gauls from the rear; continua lly sent fresh infantry in.The Gallic infantry was disposable due the sheer numbers. Caesar seeing the disarray of the Romans and his cavalry sent Labienus with six cohorts to hold their ground till they were forced to fight in open ground. In astonishing fashion Caesar mounting horseback went down the Roman line as it was depicted, â€Å"riding down between the lines on to the plain, he harangued his weary soldiers and adjured them not to give in† (Pg. 179), continuing he said, â€Å"Just one short hour, and the prize was won† (Pg. 179). It was not until Caesar himself on horseback galloped steadfast, leading the last head on assault.A new found zealous came over the Roman legions as they followed behind Caesar, they disbanded the Gauls in a mass, scattering across the land. The Gauls to appease the Romans would have Vercingetorix give himself up and die. Vercingetorix gave himself up willingly out of respect for Caesar, being an admirer of his military brilliance. It was said that Vercingetorix, â€Å"took off his armour, laid down his sword, and bowed himself at Caesar’s feet† (Pg. 180). Caesar had no admiration for Vercingetorix as it came with a great cost. Caesar had him imprisoned in a dungeon, and then executed six ears later. The conquering of Gaul propelled Caesars political power tremendously. In 49 B. C he was elected dictator or emperor of Rome and soon after Civil war broke out eventually leading to Caesars killing. Caesar outwitted the ambitious and powerful, yet inexperienced Vercingetorix profoundly in the battles of Avaricum, Gergovia, and Alesia. Caesar conquered Gaul in such extraordinary fashion, that it still leaves some historians in amazement. Caesar outmaneuvered a quarter million Gauls and strategically dismantling them.Caesars reasoning for this long and grueling conquest of Gaul was to dig himself and Rome out of the debt that had amounted. His conquest of Gaul was also an attempt, a successful one at tha t, to further his political career and bolster his power. His victory in Rome, as said before, put Caesar on a pedestal surpassing Pompey and Crassus and making him the favorite amongst Roman people. Works Cited Holmes, Thomas. Caesar's conquest of Gaul. 1899. Print. . Julius, Caesar, W. A. McDevitte , and W. S. Bohn. The Gallic Wars . 1st. Print. . Julius, Caesar, W. A. McDevitte , and W. S. Bohn.The Gallic Wars . 3rd. Print. . Julius, Caesar, W. A. McDevitte , and W. S. Bohn. The Gallic Wars . 4th. Print. . Julius, Caesar, W. A. McDevitte , and W. S. Bohn. The Gallic Wars . 8th. Print. . Holmes, Thomas. Caesar's Conquest of Gaul:An Historical Narrative (being Part I of the Larger Work on the Same Subject). Part 1. Macmillan, ———————– [1] The First Triumvirate was between the Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey. An alliance to help bolster power for Caesar in particular. [2] Equanimity†¦one of Caesars great attributes being that he was very calm and poised in battle. 3] Phalanxes was a battle formation with consisted of shields and spears. The Romans used it very effectively against all. [pic] [4] The Cevennes Mountains are in south-central France. It is known as Hidden France by some. [5] Cenabum’s massacre was Caesars attempt at revenge as the town was pillaged. [6] The massacres of Cenabum and Avaricum specifically, was because of the difficulty Caesar had sieging the towns, thus frustration led to the killings. [7] The Roman 10th Legion was known as the Legio X Equestris and was one of Caesar more famous legions. 8] Abatis were used as barriers; they had long sharpened pointed logs. [9] â€Å"According to Napolean I (Precis des guerres de Cesar, 1836, p. 110), more than fifty days must have elapsed between the departure of Vercingetorix’s cavalry and the arrival of the relieving army† (Pg. 175) [10] Gaul having 4 commanding armies that totaled in a quarter million men made it Qy â⠂¬ËœÃ‚ »LiAOUaaaA ? â„ ¢  ¶ ? n w ? o? UO? UAU »Ã‚ ±Ã‚ §? â€Å"†°Ã¢â‚¬Å"oA|o_oRoRERhw? h42aCJ^JaJhw? h. â€Å"CJ^JaJjhyg? 0Jhw? h ®w†ºCJ^JaJhw? ho  CJ^extremely difficult for Vercingetorix to communicate successfully outside the walls.

Plot Summary of Henrik Ibsens A Dolls House

Plot Summary of Henrik Ibsen's 'A Doll's House' Written in 1879 by Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen, A Dolls House is a three-act play about a seemingly typical housewife who becomes disillusioned and dissatisfied with her condescending husband. Act One: Meet the Helmers Set around Christmas time, Nora Helmer enters her home, truly enjoying life. An old widow friend from her past, Mrs. Linde, stops by hoping to find a job. Noras husband Torvald recently earned a promotion, so she happily finds employment for Mrs. Linde. When her friend complains how hard the years have been, Nora replies that her life has been filled with challenges too. Nora discreetly explains that several years ago, when Torvald Helmer was very ill, she forged her dead fathers signature in order to illegally obtain a loan. Since then, she has been paying back the loan in secret. She has never told her husband because she knows it would upset him. Unfortunately, a bitter bank employee named Nils Krogstad is the man who collects the debt payments. Knowing that Torvald is soon to be promoted, he tries using his knowledge of her forgery to blackmail Nora. He wants to ensure his position at the bank; otherwise, he will reveal the truth to Torvald and perhaps even the police. This turn of events greatly upsets Nora. However, she keeps the truth concealed from her husband, as well as Dr. Rank, a kind yet sickly old friend of the Helmers. She tries to distract herself by playing with her three children. However, by the ending of Act One, she begins to feel trapped and desperate. Act Two: Nora Tries to Keep Her Secret Throughout the second act, Nora tries to concoct ways to prevent Krogstad from revealing the truth. She has tried to coerce her husband, asking him to let Krogstad keep his job. However, Helmer believes the man possesses criminal tendencies. Therefore, he is bent on removing Krogstad from his post. Nora tries asking Dr. Rank for help, but she is put off when Dr. Rank becomes too flirtatious with her and claims that he cares for her just as much, if not more, than her husband. Later, the Helmers prepare for a holiday ball. Torvald watches Nora perform a traditional folk dance. He is disappointed that she has forgotten much of what he has taught her. Here, the audience witnesses one of the many scenes in which Torvald patronizes his wife as though she were a child or his play-thing. (Hence, Ibsen titled the play: A Dolls House). Torvald constantly calls her pet names such as my songbird and my little squirrel. Yet, he never speaks to her with any degree of mutual respect. Eventually, Mrs. Linde tells Nora that she had a romantic attachment to Krogstad in the past and that she can perhaps persuade him to relent. However, Krogstad does not sway in his position. By the end of Act Two, it seems that Torvald is bound to discover the truth. Nora is ashamed of this possibility. She contemplates jumping into an icy river. She believes that if she does not commit suicide, Torvald will bravely assume responsibility for her crimes. She believes that he would go to jail instead of her. Therefore, she wants to sacrifice herself for his benefit. Act Three: Nora and Torvald'sBig Transformation Mrs. Linde and Krogstad meet for the first time in years. At first, Krogstad is bitter towards her, but she soon rekindles their romantic interest toward one another. Krogstad even has a change of heart and considers tearing up Noras IOU. However, Mrs. Linde believes it would be best if Torvald and Nora finally confront the truth. After returning from the party, Nora and Torvald unwind at home. Torvald discusses how he enjoys watching her at parties, pretending that he is encountering her for the first time. Dr. Rank knocks on the door, interrupting the conversation. He says goodbye to them, hinting that he will be shutting himself up in his room until his sickness finally wins. After Dr. Ranks departure, Torvald discovers Krogstads incriminating note. When he realizes the criminal act that Nora has committed, Torvald becomes enraged. He fumes about how Krogstad can now make any demand he wishes. He declares that Nora is immoral, unfit as a wife and mother. Even worse, Torvald says that he will continue to be married to her in name alone. He wants to have no romantic connection to her whatsoever. The irony of this scene is that moments before, Torvald was discussing how he wished that Nora faced some sort of peril, so that he could prove his love for her. Yet, once that peril is actually presented, he has no intention of saving her, only condemning her actions. Moments after Torvald raves like a madman, Krogstad drops another note saying that he has rediscovered love and that he no longer wants to blackmail the Helmer family. Torvald rejoices, declaring that they are saved. He then, in a moment of sheer hypocrisy, states that he forgives Nora and that he still loves her as his little caged songbird. This is a startling wake-up call for Nora Helmer. In a flash, she realizes that Torvald is not the loving, selfless husband she had once envisioned. With that epiphany, she also comes to understand that their marriage has been a lie and that she herself has been an active part in the deception. She then decides to leave her husband and her children in order to find out who she truly is. Torvald desperately begs her to stay. He claims that he will change. She says that perhaps if a miracle of miracles happens they might one day become suitable companions. However, when she leaves, slamming the door behind her, Torvald is left with very little hope.

Free Essays on Research On Paralegal Case

MEMORANDUM INTRODUCTION You have asked me to determine whether our client Diana Lewis committed unauthorized practice of law by providing her services. I have done research on statutes and cases. This memorandum will address the issue of this case, California Bar’s claim, and Ms. Lewis’s possible defense. STATEMENT OF FACTS In May 2001, Diana Lewis earned her Associate of Art degree and Paralegal Certificate from City College of San Francisco. In June 2001, Ms. Lewis opened her business to prepare legal paperwork for clients involved in uncontested divorces. She advertises her business in the Daily Journal and the Recorder. She charges no more than $75 for the complete package of paperwork and has assisted 25 clients to date. Because Ms. Lewis’s clients are not familiar with the legal terminology and some of them are illiterate, Ms. Lewis is compelled to ask questions and hold conferences with them. The day before the client’s court hearing, Ms. Lewis meets with her client to discuss what he or she can expect during the hearing. Ms. Lewis does not accompany the client to the hearing. Diana Lewis has been charged by the California Bar with unauthorized practice of law. ISSUE Did Ms. Lewis practice law when she provided such legal document service? BRIEF ANSWER No. California Bar could make a case that Ms. Lewis gave legal advice. But when she helped her clients with â€Å"uncontested† divorce document, she did not give specific advice by which the client’s particular legal rights were secured. She simply helped interpret instructions on preparing the general legal forms at her clients’ request. Such sales and services are legitimate. DISCUSSION In Cal Bus & Prof Code  § 6125, â€Å"[n]o person shall practice law in California unless the person is an active member of the State Bar.† Diana Lewis dose not have law school education and did not pass California Bar Exams. She is not an active... Free Essays on Research On Paralegal Case Free Essays on Research On Paralegal Case MEMORANDUM INTRODUCTION You have asked me to determine whether our client Diana Lewis committed unauthorized practice of law by providing her services. I have done research on statutes and cases. This memorandum will address the issue of this case, California Bar’s claim, and Ms. Lewis’s possible defense. STATEMENT OF FACTS In May 2001, Diana Lewis earned her Associate of Art degree and Paralegal Certificate from City College of San Francisco. In June 2001, Ms. Lewis opened her business to prepare legal paperwork for clients involved in uncontested divorces. She advertises her business in the Daily Journal and the Recorder. She charges no more than $75 for the complete package of paperwork and has assisted 25 clients to date. Because Ms. Lewis’s clients are not familiar with the legal terminology and some of them are illiterate, Ms. Lewis is compelled to ask questions and hold conferences with them. The day before the client’s court hearing, Ms. Lewis meets with her client to discuss what he or she can expect during the hearing. Ms. Lewis does not accompany the client to the hearing. Diana Lewis has been charged by the California Bar with unauthorized practice of law. ISSUE Did Ms. Lewis practice law when she provided such legal document service? BRIEF ANSWER No. California Bar could make a case that Ms. Lewis gave legal advice. But when she helped her clients with â€Å"uncontested† divorce document, she did not give specific advice by which the client’s particular legal rights were secured. She simply helped interpret instructions on preparing the general legal forms at her clients’ request. Such sales and services are legitimate. DISCUSSION In Cal Bus & Prof Code  § 6125, â€Å"[n]o person shall practice law in California unless the person is an active member of the State Bar.† Diana Lewis dose not have law school education and did not pass California Bar Exams. She is not an active...

Sociology in MMORPGs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Sociology in MMORPGs - Essay Example In this game players can create characters with different attributes, skills, and characteristics. They venture this world of theirs fighting creatures and gaining experience to achieve higher levels, obtain better abilities, and fight even harder monsters. True, it may sound easy, but people sit and play this game for many hours at a time. A large percentage of people who play EverQuest have admitted to playing for 10 hours straight, but you must remember that in MMORPG's people must put a large amount of time into it, otherwise people generally will get bored of the game. If people do not succeed and are always doing badly in the game you would think there would be no reason for them to play. People get addicted to these games very easily. There are plenty of great people to talk too, even though there are probably twice as many people you will not get along with. A lot of people lose sleep due to playing these games for and excessive amount of time. There are also people who have tried to quit these games, but have failed. Even though they just started to play one time, they had to continue after that. Do you think that these people just think they are addicted to the game though Some people say that they have gone through withdrawals trying to quit playing some of these games. One man even stretches to say "I get stressed when I have to go 24 hrs without logging on for a fix, and I wasn't able to quit when I tried. If that's not an addiction, I don't know what is." A game, an object, cannot be physically addicting. It is not a substance that alters a person's organs inside their bodies. Physical addictions are gone after detoxification, which is not the case in MMORPG's. These types of games are considered psychologically addicting. People sit down for hours playing these games, and they have so much fun they keep saying I just want to come back and play more. It can shortly begin to start running your life. A female and her boyfriend lived in an apartment in California living off of money they earned on e-bay, and all they did was sit and play EverQuest. The only reason they left the house was to go grocery shopping for food. After they lost their apartment everything started to crumble for her. The couple started to fight and they ended up braking up and moving back to their parent's houses. She tried to start socializing with people again after this, but she had hard times conforming back to society. When she was around more then one person at a time she got scared and anxious. Some people get addicted to Massive Multi Online Role Playing Games due to the self-esteem boost they get from being part of a group. They can actually achieve something that seems like a great thing, such as slaying a ferocious dragon, when all there doing is typing and clicking the mouse. A survey done on this very topic indicates that the more time spent playing the game the higher the persons self esteem was. Another part to this is a person with a low self-image. A person with a low self-image can go onto these games and, no matter what, have a character that looks amazing. They can act without fear of being ridiculed by complete strangers, and of consequences of their actions. Some people just have very stressful lives and need a way to escape reality. They sit and play games while the real life problems

Virgin Atlantic A Premium Brand Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Virgin Atlantic A Premium Brand - Essay Example Premium Economy class offered by Virgin constitutes a major chunk of its business that provides larger seats, priority in baggage reclaim, a cabin-exclusive crew, dedicated check-in and more that distinguishes them from the other airliners. Over these years, the VA brand is recognised as one of the most reliable and consumer-friendly air carrier that people have been ready to pay premium on their air travel; however, post 2008 financial crisis has caused major upheavals in the aviation industry. In last couple of years, numerous mergers have taken place among the major airliners and that has posed a grave threat to the VA. It becomes utmost necessary that Virgin forms a suitable merger or a strategic partnership with some other large airlines to improve its competitive edge over its rivals. Introduction Virgin airlines (VA) began its operations a way back in 1984 with a single route to New York; however, expanding its operations ever since then, currently, the Virgin flies to more th an 30 destinations with total 38 aircrafts at its disposal. At the home turf, Virgin competes with British Airways (BA) and holds number two position right behind BA beating many US carriers in the process. Competing with BA at all major routes is a big feat indeed! The paper aims at identifying and analysing the competitive strategy that Virgin Atlantic has deployed all these years against the formidable airlines of the world. Virgin Atlantic's Mission Statement Virgin Atlantic's mission statement is "To grow a profitable airline, that people love to fly and where people love to work" (Strategy and Policy, 2012). Objectives VA’s long-term objective is to grow and expand into a profitable airline creating a strong brand name in the aviation industry. In a bid to fulfill these objectives, the company moved to Heathrow in 1991. Since then the company has been able to push through many routes and several markets. Creating Competitive Strategy Lomax and Raman (2006) define compet itive advantage as the means that are necessary for the company to outperform its rivals in terms of earning higher than average profits. Hooley et al. (2008) argue that a well-formulated marketing strategy should be in place based on the competitive environment in which the company operates. Product positioning or niche marketing can derive benefits to the company when harnessed strategically (Johnson, 2011). Virgin competes with British Airways, Continental, American Airlines, United and Delta on transatlantic routes; BA, Cathay Pacific, ANA, and JAL to the Far East; SAA and BA to South Africa. Virgin has instituted a two class system for its passengers: Economy class and Upper Class. Economy class is further segmented into Premium Economy and Economy Class. Virgin employs several marketing techniques using its distinct logo to market its products and services that include print media, electronic media, taxi sides, outdoor posters. The sole purpose is to increase the awareness amo ng consumers about its products and services and inform the people about new routes. During off seasons, tactical promotional schemes are offered to increase the occupancy rates in air routes. Direct mail is another method used to inform about the new offerings and services. Frequent flyer programmes are used to increase the loyalty among existing customers.