History Paper Burial Practices Essay Example for Free

History Paper Burial Practices Essay The concept of afterlife existed among many ancient civilizations. It was met as a way of understanding the present or as a way to predict the future depending on their needs. As such, in order to explain the unknown phenomenon that impacted their daily life, early tribes saw natural events as simple as the rain and the winds or birth and death and regarded them to be controlled by supernatural powers related to the gods, demons, the moon, the sun or other external driving forces. Ancient people sought protection for survival and power to maintain order with the tribes by practicing rituals which were aimed to invoke the spirit of the deceased. However, as civilizations evolved with time, their beliefs became more complex and profound. Take ancient Romans and Egyptians for instance, they both believed in the afterlife and shared similar underlying ideas; nevertheless, their way to prepare the deceased for the next life and funeral services differed in many ways. To illustrate their practices, I have chosen two artifacts displayed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Met): a coffin from Ancient Egypt and a cinerary urn from Ancient Roman’s times. Both pieces reflect different ways of treating the corpses of their deceased and prepare the dead for the journey to the afterlife which undoubtedly was a long and elaborated process. Ancient Romans and Egyptians demonstrated their firm conviction in the afterlife through solemn funeral services and burial rituals. Unlike the Egyptians who treasured the dead bodies and preserved them in sarcophagus or coffins, Romans cremated the dead bodies and kept the ashes in urns because they perceived the life in physical world to be short and temporary. When a person died, the spirit was released from the body and traveled to the afterlife. The only purpose of the physical body was to host the soul for a period long enough to prepare one to live a life free of suffering in the other world. Souls were sent to different places depending on the level of sins and crimes committed against society during the time people stayed in the mortal world. However, the suffering in the other world would end eventually. Romans’ funeral rituals usually included washing the corpse, laying it flat on a sofa or bed, and dressing it with the finest clothes that individual had ever possessed. A coin would then be placed under the tongue or on the eyes so that he could pay the â€Å"ferryman Charon† for rowing im to the land of the dead. The marble urn I observed at the Met dated from mid 1st – 2nd century A. D. was used to place the ashes of the deceased after the body was cremated. As time went by, they came to understand that the dissolution of the body was inevitable and the physical body was only a temporary host of the soul. This piece of artifact provided evidence that in ancient Romans’ point of view, the remains of the physical body had to be disintegrate d in order for the soul to begin a new life. It is reasonable to conclude that Romans regarded cremating the body of the dead as a naturally faster way to begin the life in the other world than slow disintegration of the corpse. On the other hand, Egyptians believed that the person’s physical body was more than a temporary host and it had to remain intact, a condition necessary to attain the afterlife. Moreover, they contemplated the idea that a person was the combination of several elements such as, the â€Å"ba†, which was the non physical part of the individual and the â€Å"ka† which was a universal force shared by all. Furthermore, in order to preserve the bodies, Egyptians developed a long and arduous process called mummification. This practice requires several steps such as the removal of the brain and internal organs and the cleaning of the body’s cavities with different oils and solutions. Once done, the body was laid to dry for more than a month. Although these steps were crucial for the preservation of the body, it was also believed that the transition process to the afterlife continues with the weighing of the heart. Egyptians believed that in order to gain their way to eternity one’s heart must be as light as a feather. This organ was not removed from the body and was left to be weighted by Anubis, the funeral god and Thoth, the god of knowledge. As such, it is believed that one’s heart is placed on a scale and weigh against a feather. If the scale is balanced, the deceased is deemed to have done good deeds in the present life and the gods would grant them immortality. When the mummification process is finished the preserved body is placed in a coffin as the one displayed at the Met, Gallery 112. This coffin, from Egypt Middle Kingdom time was made for a well respected and wealthy individual. The sophisticated decoration reflects the hierarchical social distinction in this particular society. In conclusion, though both ancient Romans and Egyptians believed in afterlife, they treated the corpses and practiced funeral rituals differently. These mainly resulted from their respective perception of how the mortal life was related to the afterlife as well as the importance to the physical body. By observing the two artifacts displayed at the Met, I’ve found that Egyptians placed more emphasis on the social class of the deceased by putting on splendid decorations on the coffins and sarcophagus than the Romans did on their urns. This difference reflects the core of Roman’s ancient culture which coincided with Greek’s idea of democracy by promoting a society structure with a less rigid hierarchy.

The feature of inequality in modern society

The feature of inequality in modern society Inequality is an inescapable feature of modern society. Inequality affects modern society in a variety of ways. It is an inescapable feature of the world we live in. The most common inequality is gender. Men and Women are treated different in a number of ways such as in wages and in sports. This has been the same for centuries. Social class also plays a very big role in inequality. 89% of People are still judged by their class. (Glover 2007) Gender inequality is a huge problem in modern society today. One of the most common issues is wages. It is a known fact that men receive higher wages than women. According to a report by the government in 2006 there is a 13% pay gap between men and women. (The Financial Times 2006) The Office for National Statistics website (2008) says that this statistic has risen to 17.1% in 2008 for full time workers and 36.8% for part time workers. The Equal opportunities Commission published an article Facts about women and men in Great Britain 2006 It stated that 66% of mangers and senior officials are men, while women hold 81% of administrative and secretarial jobs. In the finance sector women are just over half the workforce, yet the average hourly pay for a woman working full time in finance is 41% lower than men. Jenny Watson, the chair of The Equal Opportunities Commission states that: Jobs traditionally seen as womens work such as early years care and education are undervalued and underpa id, and later in life many women are forced to take a pay cut for the flexibility they need to raise their own children Men and women usually have an equal start with their career, but when womens childcare responsibilities kick in, this is where the problems start. Most companies and organisations blame maternity leave and childcare responsibilities for the pay gap between men and women. Women are allowed up to six months maternity leave. Recently men have been able to take just as much as women. So why is there still a gap in wages? Women have always been seen as the nurse the teacher or the secretary. The International Labour Organisation website (2010) claims that women only hold 34% of mangers jobs in great Britain. They only receive two-thirds the pay of their male counterparts. According to the International Labour Office Women and men in lower-paid non-manual jobs such as clerks, shop assistants are closest to being equal. Growing up we all had the idea of mens work and womens work. Men were builders and doctors while women were teachers and nurses. This idea hasnt changed much as we grow older. We will all automatically look twice if we see a female bus driver, a male nurse or a female foreman. Its a natural reaction. From birth we see inequalities immediately in boys and girls. Blue is the colour for boys and pink for girls. Girls have their own toys that society deemed appropriate for girls and so do boys. It seems wrong or unnatural in some way to see a boy playing with a Barbie doll or pushing a toy pram. We have all grown up with these perceptions of what colours each sex should wear and what types of toys they should play with, that its no wonder men and women are treated differently when they grow up. It is what is natural to all of us. Gender inequality also exits in the education system. In same sex schools the subject choices concentrate on the gender of the school. For example in a girls only school it is rare that they would offer subjects such as construction studies or woodwork studies, the same for boys schools, they would rarely offer their male students the choice to take home economics. These subjects can only be taken for both boys and girls in mixed gender schools. Another area where gender inequality is present is Sports. Women are in a male dominated world when it comes to sport. The ancient Olympic games website (2009) claims that Women have been fighting to gain equality in sport since 776 B.C. at the Olympic Games, originally known as the Games of Hera. Women were not allowed to play nor watch the games. Although women play the same sports as men do, women receive little or no air time. It is very rare that you would see a womens soccer or rugby match being shown in a sports bar. The media has largely contributed to false stereotypes regarding men, women and sports. They see women as inferior to male athletes. Tennis especially has seen many centuries of gender inequality. Women only play the best of three sets whereas men play the best of five. Im sure any female tennis player would be more than capable to play five or more sets if given the opportunity. There was also a dramatic difference in prize money up until 2006. There was a big di fference in prize money between men and women in Wimbledon. Men were being paid a lot more money than women. A spokesperson for Wimbledon said that the difference in prize money was due to the fact that mens tennis was more exciting than womens. The Wimbledon website (2006) said this all changed in 2006 when both the ladies and mens winners were paid the same amount of prize money. This is a step in the right direction for gender equality in tennis. On the other hand soccer needs to follow in the same path. Women soccer players do not receive the same recognition or the same money that their male counterparts receive. Wayne Rooney earns  £90,000 a week being a professional soccer player for Manchester United and is world famous. I dont think many people would be able to name one professional female soccer player. Men get all the fame and all the recognition. Golf is another sport where females are treated unequally. In most golf courses, women can only play on ladies day and are not allowed to play alongside the male players. Professional Female golf players just like professional female soccer players, do not receive as much money or recognition. These are some of the many inequalities which women are trying to challenge and overcome today. It has stopped women from advancing as fast as their male counterparts. In my opinion women have been neglected in sports just as they have been in many other areas of life such as education and work. More often or not people are judged by their social class. They are discriminated against by where they come from. 90% of 18-24 year olds say people are judged by their class (Glover 2007). This has been happening for centuries and I do not think that it will change in the near future. As suggested by Macionis and Plummer (2008) Gordon Therborn has suggested that social class is one of the key features of modern Europe, as Europe was the first major arena of industrialisation. All the main political parties in Britain are trying to work against social class. Gordon Brown claimed recently that a class free society can become a reality in Britain. There are three shapes of class: The upper classes, the middle classes and the working classes. According to Glover (2007) the upper class is almost extinct with only 2% claiming to be part of it. The Middle class used to be the group between rich and poor. In 1998, 41% of people thought as themselves as middle class, exactly the same proportion as today. (Glover 2007) The Working Class is the lowest of the classes. A few centuries ago working class people were miners. They are known as the poorest of society. Glover (2007) said, Of people born to working class parents, 77% say they are working class too. One one fifth say they have become middle class. The fact that we still have a structure of class shows that people are discriminated because of their class and where they come from. They are discriminated against in the workplace and in schools. As Hutton (2007) described in his article, pupils from schools from middle class or working class areas are receiving little to no places in prestigious schools such as Oxford, even though they have received excellent marks. Their marks sometimes were better than pupils at Upper class schools. This just proves that there is inequality in social class. It obviously depends on where you come from and which school you attend that shapes your future education. No matter where we go in life we will be judged by our class and where we come from. Karl Marx and Max Weber have different views upon social class. Macionis and Plummer (2008) said that Marx defined class in terms of those who own the means of production and those who do not with a residual class in between He says that the owners or the means of production exploit those who produce goods and services, while the working class become alienated consumers. Marx focuses more on the economic side of social class, especially the labour force. Weber and Marx have similar ideas. In Webers view, a persons class status is a determinant of how they will turn out in later life. People will have a better life if they are higher up in class. He thought that a persons possessions and the way they lived was the cause of class conflict. Although Weber believed as Marx did that the economic side of social class was important and caused most of the conflict, he didnt believe that this was the only cause of the conflict between social classes. He saw society back then as having many st atus groups who held a vast amount of power. For example teachers do not own their schools they work for people, but they may be higher up in status than a mechanic who owns his owns and runs his own business. Weber thought that people in politics had more power in society. Weber said that conflict between the classes was a result of many different inequalities. Inequality is definitely an inescapable feature of our society. There are still gender inequalities present in modern society and some that have been around for centuries. I think there will always be inequalities between men and women. It has been around for centuries and nothing has changed, so I do not see it changing in the near future. There will also always be inequalities in social class. It was around in Karl Marxs era and is still here to the present day. People are being judged and criticized by where they come from. Even though the government is claiming that social class will not exist in years to come, they have not backed up their claims yet.

Design of Manchester Serial Data Communications Channel

Design of Manchester Serial Data Communications Channel The Design of Manchester Serial Data Communications Channel Based on Vivado (Systemverilog) Abstract As the explosive growth of wireless communication system and also with the proliferation of laptop and palmtop computers, the requirement of high quality data communication channel is also growing rapidly. By transforming line voltage frequently and proportioning to the clock rate, the Manchester coding is able to help recover the clock and data. It is now widely used in many domains. This project studies the function of the clock divider, the pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG), the shift register and the finite state machine (FSM), then comprise them together into a Manchester serial data communications channel. It is used for recovering clock signal from the encoded data. The further application is setting up a bit error rate (BER) tester to detect the condition of the whole system. If the bit error rate (BER) is high, which means the whole system is not integrated; if low, the integrality of the system is great. 1.1 Background In modern life, wireless communication develops rapidly in many aspects, especially in the communication industry. So, it has achieved lots of attention from media and public. The development of cellular phones is also swift and violent. During the whole world, the cellular phones have experienced geometric growth over the last decade and the number of cellular phone users will grows up to a billion in the foreseeable future. In fact, by replacing out-dated wireless systems, cellular phones are becoming much more widely used, and they have already played a very important role in business domain, also the indispensable part of everyday life. Besides, wired networks in many businesses and campuses are now replaced or supplemented by local area wireless networks for officers and students to use it more convenient. Numbers of new applications such as wireless sensor networks, smart homes and appliances, automated highways and factories and remote telemedicine, are becoming reality, which is a huge improvement of technology. The conditions such as the explosive growth of wireless systems and the proliferation of laptop and palmtop computers show a bright future of wireless networks, not only in independent systems but also in larger networking infrastructure. However, in order to support the required performance of emerging applications, it is quite challenging to design, analysis and solve any problems that occurs in wireless networks. With the development of wireless communication system, Manchester encoding is widely used. Due to its development at the University of Manchester, it is known as a synchronous clock encoding technique that used by the physical layer for encoding the clock and data of a synchronous bit stream. At the very first beginning, it was used to save data on the magnetic drum of the Manchester Mark one computer. In Manchester code, the binary data that need to be transmitted over the cable will not sent as a sequence of logic 0 and 1, which is also called Non Return to Zero (NRZ). However, if the bits are transformed into different format, then it will have lots of advantages than the straight binary form only like Non Return to Zero (NRZ). However, in digital transmission, noise, interference, distortion or bit synchronization errors are the main factors that affect the number of bit errors. Every time when transmitting data though a data link, there is a possibility of errors being introduced into the system. If errors are introduced into the data, which means the signal will be interfered, and the system would not be integrated. So for this situation, it is necessary to assess the performance of the system, and bit error rate (BER) provides an ideal way to achieve the requirements. The bit error rate (BER) is the number of bit errors that occurs every unit time, and the bit error ratio (BER) is defined as the number of bit errors that occurs divided by the total number of transferred bits during a controllable study time period. It is a unit less performance measure, which is always expressed in percentage form. Bit error rate (BER) assesses the full end to end performance of a system which includes the transmitter, receiver and the medium between the two. Due to this situation, bit error rate (BER) enables to test the actual performance of an operating system. It is different from other forms of assessment and works in a much better way. 1.2 Objectives Figure 1 The Diagram of Physical Components Connection The figure 1 above shows the components used in the system and the connection configuration of the system. First of all, the signal generator outputs data into the T junction chip (signal emitter) which includes the clock divider, prbsgen and the logic xor gate. Secondly, the data will be transmitted through the transmission channel which is made up by two vertical metal bars, one is LED light for transmitting data, the other is light sensor for receiving data. Thirdly, the data will be sent into the signal analysis and recover part which includes the shift register, pattdet and fsm components. Finally, the recovered signal and original data both will be sent into the oscilloscope to check the difference and make sure if the result is satisfied. The objective of this project is setting up a Manchester serial data communications channel based on the vivado operation system which using System Verilog language to match this physical system. It can be used as radio channel, bit error rate tester and etc. In this project, the application of the system is designed as a bit error rate (BER) tester. As shown in figure 2 below is the design of bit error rate tester. During a complete simulation period, once received the number of errors that occurs and total number of bits that sent, then the bit error rate is available. Figure 2 Bit Error Rate Tester Design 1.3 Theory a. Bit Error Rate Bit error rate (BER) is a key parameter that is used for transmitting digital data from one location to another in assessing systems. It is widely used to monitor the state of digital signal in different applications, such as radio data links, fibre optic data systems, Ethernet and those who transmit data through some form of networks. Generally, it affected by noise, interference and phase jitter. Although these systems work in different ways, and have disparate impact on the bit error rate, the basics of bit error rate are still the same. Every time when transmitting data though a data link, there is a possibility of errors being introduced into the system. If errors are introduced into the data, which means the signal will be interfered, and the system would not be integrated. So for this situation, it is necessary to assess the performance of the system, and bit error rate (BER) provides an ideal way to achieve the requirements. Bit error rate (BER) assesses the full end to end performance of a system including the transmitter, receiver and the medium between the two. Because of this, bit error rate (BER) enables to test the actual performance of an operating system. It is different from other forms of assessment and works in a much better way. Bit error rate (BER) is defined as the rate at which errors occur in a transmission system. It can be translated into the number of errors that occur in a string of a stated number of bits directly. The definition of bit error rate in simple formula is: If the medium between the transmitter and receiver is good and the signal to noise ratio (SNR) is high, the bit error rate will become very small, which means the error barely has noticeable effect on the overall system and could be ignored. However, if the number of errors is big, the signal to noise ratio (SNR) is low, and then the bit error rate needs to be considered. In another word, the system has been affected by noise. Noise and the propagation path change (radio signal paths are used) are two main reasons that cause the degradation of data channel and generate the corresponding bit error rate (BER). However the two effects affect in different ways. For example the noise following a Gaussian probability function while the propagation model follow a Rayleigh model. Which means it is very necessary using statistical analysis techniques to undertake the analysis of the channel characteristics. For fibre optic systems, bit errors usually caused by the imperfections in the components such as the optical driver, receiver, fibre and connectors that used for making the link. However it may also be introduced by optical dispersion and attenuation. Whats more, the optical receiver may detects the noise, this will also interfere the system. Typically, the fibre optical system will use sensitive photodiodes and amplifiers to respond to very small changes, and there is a possibility that high noise level will be detected. The phase jitter that present in the system is another possible factor which enable the sampling of the data altered. A number of factors are able to affect the bit error rate (BER). To optimize the system and acquire the required performance levels, it is very necessary to manipulate the controllable variables. Normally, in order to adjust the performance parameters at the initial design concept stages, this should be undertaken in the design stages of a data transmission system. Interference: The interference levels in the system are usually controlled by external factors, and can not be changed by optimizing the system design. However, the bandwidth of the system is a controllable factor. The level of interference will be reduced if the bandwidth is reduced. However the disadvantage is the achievable data throughput will be low when the bandwidth gets reduced. Increase transmitter power: To increase the power per bit, the power level of the system should be increased at the same time. Factors like the interference levels to other users and the impact of increasing the power output on the size of the power amplifier and overall power consumption and battery life, the impact of them should be reduced to help control the bit error rate (BER). Lower order modulation: Lower order modulation schemes are thinkable way to balance the bit error rate. However the achievable data throughput will reduce. Reduce bandwidth: Another adoptable approach is reducing the bandwidth of the system to reduce the bit error rate (BER). As a result, the system will receive lower levels of noise and the signal to noise ratio (SNR) will be improved. However, the achievable data throughput will reduce as well. However it is not possible to achieve all the requirements, sometimes needs to do some trade-offs. In order to achieve the required bit error rate (BER), it is very necessary to balance all the available factors. When the bit error rate (BER) is lower than expected, under the risk of receiving unsatisfied levels of error correction that are introduced into the data being transmitted, further trade-offs are still necessary. Even though it may need higher levels of error correction when sending more redundant data, but the effect of any bit errors can be masked, as a result, the overall bit error rate (BER) will improve. As radio and fibre optic system, in order to detect the indication of the performance of a data link, bit error rate (BER) is an excellent parameter for that. It is also one of the main parameter of interest in data links that detects the number of errors that occurs. Other features of the link such as the power and bandwidth, etc are able to get the performance that required after adjusting with the knowledge of the bit error rate (BER). b. Shift Register The Shift Register is another type of sequential logic circuit that can be used to save or transfer data in the form of binary numbers. It loads data that present on its inputs and then moves or shifts data to its output during every clock cycle. Basically, a shift register is comprised by numbers of single bit D-Type Data Latches, one for each data bit, either a logic 0 or a 1. The connection arrangement type is serial chain, which is able to keep turning every output from data latch become the input of the next latch. In shift register configuration, the data bits are able to work in several ways such as fed in or out from either the left or right direction one by one or all together in parallel at the same time. Usually, the most widely used construction of a single shift register is made up by eight individual data latches to match eight bits (one byte) data, which means the number of individual data latches is decided by the number of bits that need to be stored. While a shift register may comprise numbers of individual data latches, but all of them are driven by one common clock (CLK) signal, which makes those latches working synchronously. Shift registers normally used in computers or calculates for storing or transferring data. The principle of it is converting data from serial to parallel or from parallel to serial format. For example, if saving data inside computer, shift registers can store all the binary numbers before them added together. In order to set or reset the state of shift register, it always contains an additional connection with the required function. There are four different operation modes for shift register to transfer data. Serial-in to Serial out (SISO) either a left or right direction, with the same clock, the data is shifted serially IN and OUT of the register one bit at a time. The figure 3 below shows an example of it which transfer data from left to right. Figure 3 4-bit Serial-in to Serial-out Shift Register Serial-in to Parallel-out (SIPO) one bit at a time, the data is loaded in register serially, and available to output together in parallel way. The figure 4 below shows an example of it but with 4 bits data input and output and the data transferred from left to right. Figure 4 4-bit Serial-in to Parallel-out Shift Register Parallel-in to Parallel-out (PIPO) the parallel data is introduced together into the register at the same time, and then transferred to each correspondent outputs together under the same clock pulse. The figure 5 below shows an example of it with 4 bits parallel data input and output and the direction of data movement is from left to right. Figure 5 4-bit Parallel-in to Parallel-out Shift Register Parallel-in to Serial-out (PISO) the parallel data is introduced together into the register in the meantime, and then one bit at a time, shifted out serially under the control of clock. The figure 6 below shows an example of it with 4 bits data input which transfer data from left to right. Figure 6 4-bit Parallel-in to Serial-out Shift Register c. Pseudo Random Bit Sequence Generator (PRBSGEN) A random bit generator is a device or algorithm that used to output a sequence of independent and unbiased binary digits in statistics. Meanwhile, a pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG) is a deterministic algorithm, which means if a truly random binary sequence of length X is given, the binary sequence output of length Y >> X would be random. The input of the pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG) is normally called the seed, while the output of it is called a pseudo random bit sequence. The pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG) can be used as random because the value of an element of the sequence is not related to the values of any of the other elements. However, the output of a pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG) is not truly random. With all possible binary sequences of length Y, the number of possible output sequences is a small fraction maximally. After N elements, the sequence starts to repeat itself, which means it is deterministic. The aim is to receive a small truly random sequence and then expand it into a sequence with much larger length. Generally, the implementation of pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG) is based on the linear feedback shift register (LFSR). The pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG) makes a sequence of logic 0 and 1 under the same probability. A sequence of serial n*(2^n -1) bits use one data pattern, and this pattern will repeat itself over time. In the Manchester serial data communications channel, the pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG) is implemented in System Verilog programming language, and used to sample two bit input data and managed through a logic xor gate, then introduce the result into the first bit of the sequence as the feedback. The output of the pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG) was taken from all the nine bits of the shift register. The feedback connections of the pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG) are shown in appendix A. As a result, the output of the pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG) cycles between 0 to 511. Figure 7 Principle of Pseudo Random Bit Sequence Generator (PRBSG) d. Manchester Coding The Manchester coding is well known because of the development in the University of Manchester. It is used to save data on the magnetic drum of the Manchester mark one computer. In signal transmission domain, Manchester coding is widely used. However in order to achieve the same data rate but less bandwidth, the more complex codes are created such as 8B/10B encoding. Meanwhile the disadvantages of them are in the transmitter device, not able to have high tolerant of frequency errors and jitter, and receiver reference clocks. The worst problem is the Manchester encoding is not suitable for higher data rate because it will introduce some difficult frequency errors into the system. But the advantage of Manchester coding is helping recover the clock by transforming line voltage frequently, which is proportional to the clock rate directly. It is very convenient to transmit data by media like Ethernet without a DC component because the DC component of encoded signal is not determined by the data that transmitted, which means no information will be transmitted in signal. The figure 8 below shows the principles of Manchester coding, which are: Each bit is transmitted once a period. Logic 0 expresses a low-to-high transition, logic 1 expresses a high-to-low transition. At the midpoint of a period, logic 0 or 1 will be interconverted. The transformation at the beginning of a period does not mean the data. Figure 8 Principle of Manchester Encoding Figure 9 The Circuit Design    The figure 9 above is the complete design of whole circuit. All the components that required comprising a Manchester serial data communications channel are designed successfully. The data will be divided in the clock divider (Divclk) component, sampled in the pseudo random bit sequence generator (Prbsgen) component, and then altered into Manchester signal by a logic xor gate, through the transmission channel, the data will be sent into the shift register, combine into 10 bits DATA signal, after analysed in the Pattdet component, 4 states will be sent into finite state machine (FSM) component and be recovered as the signal of RBC and RNRZ. In this system the clock frequency is 100MHZ and the reset will set at logic 1 before the system work. The programs of all components used in the system are shown below. Figure 10 Clock Divider Program The figure 10 above is the click divider program. This component is designed for dividing the clock signal into two different clock signal div_out and div_out2. These two output signals are shown in figure 13. In which the signal div_out gets one clock of high pulse every 10 clocks, the frequency is 10MHZ, and works as the specific input o the Prbsgen component. While signal div_out2 gets 5 clocks of high pluses per 5 clocks, also the frequency is 10MHZ. Figure 11 Prbsgen Program The figure 11 above is the Prbsgen program. It works as a pseudo-random bit sequence generator, which records 10 bits of data each clock, when signal div_out gets high impulse, sampling the 4th and 8th data into a logic xor gate and then put the result into the 1st data position as the feedback of the sampling function. Finally, output the prbs signal (as shown in figure 7) or NRZ signal (in figure 13). Figure 12 Logic Xor Gate Program The figure 12 above is the logic xor gate program. In order to combine the NRZ and Bit_clk signal together and output the signal T (Manchester code) which is shown in figure 13 below. When NRZ gets high and Bit_clk gets low, output Manchester is high; when NRZ gets high and Bit_clk gets high, Manchester is low; when NRZ gets low and Bit_clk gets high, Manchester is high; when NRZ gets low and Bit_clk gets low, Manchester is low. Figure 13 Manchester Signal As the figure 13 shown, the clock divider, the pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG), and logic xor gate all work well, the output signal div_out and div_out2 are both divided as required, while the prbs signal (NRZ) is as expected and the T signal (Manchester code) is the same as the signal that xors with div_out2 and prbs (NRZ) signal. Figure 14 Transmission Delay Program The figure 14 above is the transmission delay program. It is used to simulate the data transmission delay during the real life. Normally, errors like noise, interference and phase jitter are introduced into the data through this part, while the time of transmission delay depends on the distance between the signal emitter and receiver. In this system, the parameter of time delay set at 1.5e-6 in seconds. Figure 15 Shift Register Program The figure 15 above is the signal register program. The function of it is compressing and storing the Manchester data and then transfer into pattdet component. It starts working only when reset is logic 0, input en is logic 1. Figure 16 DATA Signal The output of 10 bits data (DATA) is the same as required, which means the program of shift register works well. Figure 17 Pattdet Program The figure 17 above is the pattdet program. It is used for analysing the DATA signal, and the output follows the principle which shown in table 1 below. Data 00000 00000 00000 11111 11111 00000 11111 11111 State S1 10h3EQ S2 10h01F S3 10h3FF S4 10h000 Table 1 The Working Principle of Pattdet Component Figure 18 4 States From figure 18 above, 4 states of s1, s2, s3, s4 are outputted separately and successfully. Figure 19 Finite State Machine (FSM) Program The figure 19 above is the finite state machine (FSM) program. The function of it is analysing the 4 states and recovering the bit_clk, bit_EN and NRZ signal, and the principle of it is shown in below figure 20. From the figure 20, when signal NRZ turns to logic 0 from logic 0, state s1 turns to s2; when signal NRZ turns to logic 1 from logic 0, state s1 turns to s4; when signal NRZ turns to logic 1 from logic 1, state s2 turns to s1; when signal NRZ turns to logic 0 from logic 1, state s2 turns to s3. Figure 20 The Principle Of FSM Figure 21 The Bit Error Rate Tester (BERT) Program The figure 21 above is the catalogue program of bit error rate tester. It contains the clock divider, prbsgen, encoder (logic xor gate), shift register, pattdet and fsm program file. Figure 22 The Test Bench Program The figure 22 above is the test bench program. It defines all the factors in the system and especially the period of reset and clock. Figure 23 The Implemented Design This is the implemented design figure, which shows the service condition of devices. Figure 24 The Schematic Design Figure 25 The Detailed Figure of FSM The figure 25 above is the schematic design which shows the real used state of every component. However, the part of clock divider and pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG) is not satisfied one. The problem may be caused by the vivado operation system software issue or the definition of clock divider and pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG) is not recognised by the software. The Manchester serial data communications channel built up successfully. In figure 26, the signal RBC, RNRZ and RBE are all recovered, just the same as the original signal bit_clk, NRZ and bit_en but with some time delay. The next objective is developing applications for the Manchester serial data communications channel. The chosen target is a bit error rate tester. By setting up a noise component for introducing random noise into the Manchester signal and then an error counter inside the finite state machine (FSM) for counting the number of errors that occurs and the total number of bits sent. As a result, the bit error rate (BER) will be able to count in the system. Figure 26 Recovered RNRZ and RBC Signal The figure 26 above is the final simulation result. Signal of recovered non return to zero (RNRZ), recovered bit_clock (RBC) and recovered bit_en (RBE) are all the same as their original data but with time delays. Figure 27 The Signal of Input and Recovered From the figure 27 above, the recovered signal is almost the same as the original input data. These two figures prove the design of Manchester serial data communications channel is successful. After setting up this communication channel, the next step is developing applications for further requirements. The theory of pseudo random bit sequence generator (PRBSG), Manchester coding, shift register and bit error rate are proved to be feasible. This project is a great opportunity to practise from research ideas to concrete systems. With the explosive growth of wireless communication system, Ciletti, M. (2011). Advanced digital design with the Verilog HDL. 1st ed. Boston: Prentice Hall. (Accessed: October 9 2016). Menezes, A., Van Oorschot, P. and Vanstone, S. (1997). Handbook of applied cryptography. 1st ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press, p.chapter. Available at: http://cacr.uwaterloo.ca/hac/about/chap5.pdf (Accessed: December 25 2016). MUKHERJEE, S. and PANDEY, R. (2007). DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF PRBS GENERATOR USING VHDL. bachelor. Department of Electronics Communication Engineering National Institute of Technology Rourkela. Available at: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/42e7/490ec8905ea8afe618c6882f2b050ece2ae4.pdf (Accessed: October 14 2016). Malviya, S. and Kumari, P. (2014). Implementation of Pseudo-Noise Sequence Generator on FPGA Using Verilog. [online] Dept of Electronics and Communication, Sobhasaria Group of Institution, Sikar, Rajasthan. Available at: https://www.ripublication.com/irph/ijeee_spl/ijeeev7n8_16.pdf [Accessed

Comparing the Social Criticism of Voltaires Candide and Samuel Johnso

Comparing the Social Criticism of Voltaire's Candide and Samuel Johnson's Rasselas      Ã‚  Ã‚   Samuel Johnson and Voltaire were both writers of enormous social conscience in the eighteenth century. It is not surprising then to discover that both men wrote short tales dealing primarily with criticism of the human condition. Ironically, these books were written and published within weeks of each other in 1759 (Enright 16). Johnson's Rasselas and Voltaire's Candide are strikingly similar in their use of the episodic and romantic picaresque motifs. The underlying purpose within each author's criticism, however, allows many differences in the two tales to surface. The author's intentions diverge beyond superficial similarities and each work develops a unique vantage point from which to observe humanity.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Neither work can be accused of being a realistic tale. These moral fables are set in a fantastic, utopian, and ludicrous world. The distance from the reader in each tale is quite different, however. Johnson places realistic characters in an unrealistic world. He remains on the same level with his characters, describing the situations and environment in which they find themselves. In this manner the reader can identify with and feel empathy for the characters in Rasselas. They are thinking, caring, fallible human beings equal to the reader and the author.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Voltaire creates a chasm between humanity and the world of Candide. The reader laughs not only at the situation or environment, for the characters are just as ludicrous as the world in which they live. It is possible that Voltaire wants his audience to assume a position of moral superiority when reading the tale. The reader cannot take characte... ...liography Enright, D.J.   Introduction.   The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia. By Samuel Johnson. London: Penguin Group, 1976.   p.12,16.  Ã‚   Hill, G.B.   Introduction. The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia. By Samuel Johnson.   Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1887.   p.17.  Ã‚   Johnson, Samuel. The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia. Ed. Enright, D.J.   London: Penguin Group,1988.   p.43,45,65,103   Johnson, Samuel.   "The Rambler No.184."   Rpt. in Enright, D.J.   Introduction. The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia. By Samuel Johnson. London: Penguin Group, 1976. p.32.  Ã‚   Maurois, Andre.   "The Sage of Ferney."   Voltaire.   New York: D. Appleton & Co, 1932.   Rpt. in Candide.   Trans. Bair, Lowell.   New York: Bantam Books, 1988.   P.6-7.  Ã‚   Voltaire.   Candide.   Trans. Bair, Lowell.   New York: Bantam Books, 1988.   p.73,120.   

CD Review :: essays research papers

Jay-Z Blueprint Here you have it, all you Jay-Z fans; a much anticipated review of the hot new CD!! 1)The Ruler's Back 3:49 This song is Jay-Z singing about...Jay-Z. In this song he sounds very conceded. He is 'the Ruler', and when he says "I'm back n***a", there are trumpets playing in the background, jsut like you'd imagine them being played for royalty. He talks about how rich he is, and how he doesn't care if he goes to court, he says"What's a couple dollars to me?" and the only thing he cares about is that you respect him. I dunno, it's kinda tough respecting someone with that big an ego. But it's kinda cool, in the beginning the beat goes with his laugh, it reminds me of how we're supposed to get the virbrato on flute, the whole "hahaha" thing. 2)Takeover 5:13 I like the beat to this song. it's the type you'd go cruising with, turn the bass waaayyyy up. so that you can't even hear the words. Int his song he advertises his record label Roc-A-Fella, and how powerful he is, and how he and his rappers are "runnin' this rap sh*t". He talk about how many more records he's sold than DMX, and disses him. At one point he uses a DMX clip where they're shouting "NOOOO!" And every time, it never fails, I jump out of my seat, it sounds as if someone is sitting right next to you screaming bloody murder. 3)Izzo (H.O.V.A.) 4:00 This is one of my favorite songs on the cd, in fact, this song is the reason I bought the cd. This song has a peppy beat, and talks about how he, inspite of everything that has happened to him, he comes out on top. Honestly, i have no idea what "H to the izzo, V to the izzy" is supposed to mean. The chorus has a girl singing that line, and Jay-Z saying "Forshizzo my nizzo, used to dribble down in VA", then the girls sing "H to the izzo, V to the izzy" again, and then Jay-Z says "That's the anthem, get your da*n hands up". It's the type of song you can't help but bop your head to. It's also the perfect length, by the end of it, you aren't tired of the song unlike some of the other songs on this cd. 4) Girls, Girls, Girls 4:35

Escape by W.S. Maugham

â€Å"ESCAPE† By William Somerset Maugham The text under interpretation is â€Å"Escape† by William Somerset Maugham. W. S. Maugham was a well-known English playwright, novelist and short story writer. He was the son of a British diplomat. He was educated at King`s school in Canterbury, studied painting in Paris, went to Heidelberg University in Germany and studied to be a doctor at St. Thomas Hospital in England. So, he put his hand in different activities and that`s why he is versatile and experienced person. S.Maugham was critical of the morals, the narrow-mindedness and hypocrisy of bourgeois society. Such novels as â€Å"Of Human Bondage†, â€Å"The Moon and the Sixpence†, â€Å"The Theatre† and others came under his pen. He was also the master of the short story. Among them are: â€Å"Colonel’s Lady†, â€Å"Friend in Need†, â€Å"Lion’s Skin†, etc. S. Maugham was among the most popular writers of his era, and reputedly, the highest paid author during the 1930s. Maugham’s style of writing is clear and precise. He doesn`t impose his views on the reader. He puts a question and leaves it to the reader to answer.I also like his revealing the weak sides and vices of human nature skilfully. His books are chatty and easy to read. This is clearly viewed from the given extract. â€Å"Escape† is a story about common people in common situation, and Maugham manages to tell it with the sense of humour and in a very interesting way. The essence of â€Å"The Escape†, to my mind, is that Roger and Ruth have diverse approaches towards the relations. Of course, the men and the women like the first step: flowers, attentiveness, passion. But then their paths diverge.The romance disappears, the man looks for the way out, he craves for new emotions, but the woman deems that the relations should develop into the marriage. And â€Å"The Escape† is the example of such a mismatch. The story can be logically divided into four main parts: the exposition, passages about Ruth’s and Roger’s love, Roger falls out of love and the break-up. The story has a straight line narrative structure with author’s digressions at the beginning. I think that the beginning of the story serves as its subject matter, where the author recounts his point of view on marriage.He convinces us that if a woman once made her mind to marry a man nothing but instant flight could save him. As an example he told a case, which happened with one of his friends, who seeing the inevitable marriage menacing before him, took ship and spent a year traveling round the world. He hoped the woman would forget him, but was mistaken. When he got back thinking himself safe, the woman, from whom he had fled, was waiting for him on the quay. This funny thing supports the idea that the inevitable loom of the marriage frightens some men and they try to avoid it.It should be mentioned, that he de scribes that awkward situation very skilfully and in a very ironical way. It could be confirmed by some cases of irony, used by the narrator – â€Å"instant flight† and â€Å"inevitable loom menacing before him†, â€Å"escaped with only a toothbrush for all his luggage†, which show us fear and trembling of men before the difficulties of the marriage. Maugham establishes realistic setting to his piece of writing. As the author uses the first-person narrative structure we can guess that the narrator is the secondary character of the story.The main ones here are Roger Charing and Ruth Barlow. To describe them, Maugham uses the direct characterization. For example, he gives it when speaks about of Ruth’s eyes using the epithets (â€Å"splendid†, â€Å"moving†, â€Å"big and lovely†), a detached epithet (â€Å"poor dear†) – all in the ironic way. Further on the narrator says that he knows only one man who escaped succe ssfully. Once upon a time his friend, Roger Charing told him he was going to marry. Roger was tall and handsome, rich, experienced middle-aged man. Of course, many women wanted to marry him.But he was happy to live the life of an unmarried man: the epithets â€Å"sufficient experience†, â€Å"careful† give the direct description of his lifestyle. But then he met Ruth Barlow. He fell in love with her. He immediately wanted to look after her and make her happy. Ruth was twice a widow, she was younger than Roger. She was quite good-looking and she had big, beautiful, dark eyes and she had the gift of pathos. When a man saw those big, sad eyes, he wanted to help Ruth. The epithet â€Å"defenceless† expose the power of her look.It was Ruth’s mode to get what she wanted because she had no other means (money for instance). This â€Å"gift† helped Ruth to reach her goals. The metaphor â€Å"the gift of pathos†, the epithets â€Å"splendid dark eyes †, â€Å"the most moving eyes†, â€Å"big and lovely eyes† and the repetition of the word â€Å"eyes† make us pay our attention to this peculiarity. And Ruth made her mind to marry Roger: he was rich, considerate, and tactful and was glad to take care of her, so he was the best variant for her. He didn’t let down and made a proposal of marriage to her and they were going to marry as soon as ossible. While reading we came across a lot of pure literary words (gift, splendid, wonderful, hazards, sadness, lovely) and some cliches (â€Å"the world was too much for her†, â€Å"stand between the hazards of life and this helpless little thing†, â€Å"how wonderful it would be to take the sadness out of those big and lovely eyes†) which are peculiar to the description of ordinary situations concerning love affairs, so we see what kind of story â€Å"The Escape† is. The narrator provokes us to perceive it ironically.Through Rogerâ €™s vision, Ruth was very unlucky. Indeed, she seemed to be very miserable, everything was wrong with her. If she married a husband he beat her; if she employed a broker he cheated her; if she engaged a cook she drank. She never had a little lamb but it was sure to die. We can observe hopelessness of Ruth’s life through the epithets â€Å"helpless little thing†, â€Å"rotten time†, â€Å"unfortunate†, â€Å"poor dear†, the metaphor â€Å"a little lamb†, parallel constructions â€Å"if she married†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and pure literary words such as â€Å"sufferings†, â€Å"hazards†, â€Å"sadness†.Roger took an interest in her destiny and was ready to relieve it: the repetition of the pronouns â€Å"she† and â€Å"her† in Roger’s speech, the epithet â€Å"dreadfully sorry† prove my assumption. The epithets â€Å"very happy† and â€Å"pleased† make us believe that it wasn’t a nuisance for him. But according to the narrator’s opinion, Ruth was two-faced woman of few ideas: he called her stupid and scheming. This epithets, the simile â€Å"as hard as nails† add some points to her description, so it again proves that the method of character-drawing here is direct.We see two people, Roger and Ruth, as the future family, so this is the idea of this extract of the text. The author describes the first part of their relations which were rather standard. As thousands of men and women, they met, fell in love and decided to be together. But then, on a sudden, Roger fell out of love. This was the second part of their relations. There was no evident reason. Perhaps, his heart-strings were no longer touched by Ruth’s pathetic look. Roger became acutely conscious that Ruth had a mind to marry him. He gave a solemn oath that nothing would induce him to marry Ruth.But he was in a quandary. He was aware that Ruth would assess her feelings at an immod erately high figure if he asked her to release him. Besides, he didn’t want people to say that he jilted a woman. The epithets â€Å"acutely conscious†, â€Å"a solemn oath† and â€Å"an immoderately high figure† stress the importance, significance of his decision; as to the epithet â€Å"pathetic look† and the metaphor â€Å"heart-strings† (at the same time it is a cliche), they produce the humorous effect. Falling out of love is the most terrible thing I can imagine.Recently it was an acute pleasure for Roger to do everything for Ruth. He was charmed, but, as I suppose, it wasn’t a serious and profound feeling – Roger lost it too easily. It is obvious Ruth was a narrow-minded woman and she didn’t really love Roger. But there are some arguments to be said in her defence, she lonely and wanted to be protected. Probably she would be a good wife. The repetition of the expression â€Å"to have a mind to† reveals the conflict of Roger’s and Ruth’s interests. Ruth desired to have relations of long duration – she cried for the moon.On the contrary, Roger wanted to escape with no loss. And again we are the witnesses of the usual continuation of the love story. It’s rather banal. Roger kept his own counsel; he remained attentive to all her wishes. It was decided that they would be married as soon as they found a suitable house. Roger applied to the agents and visited with Ruth house after house. It was very hard to find a satisfactory one. Sometimes houses were too large, sometimes they were too small, sometimes they were too expensive and sometimes they were too stuffy, sometimes they were too airy.The idea is that only such dishonest, shabby act as the flat-chase tactics seemed to be appropriate for Roger. I think, it was like a committing a crime. Roger’s behaviour wasn’t fair, it was even disgraceful, but unfortunately such conduct is not uncommon, the m en trick the women very often, because their attitude towards the relations differs. Parallel constructions â€Å"sometimes they were too large, sometimes they were too small, sometimes they were too expensive and sometimes they were too stuffy†, the metaphor â€Å"house-hunting†, the epithet â€Å"innumerable kitchens† describe Roger’s scheme of the trouble-free parting.Firstly I took Roger’s side, because I consider that each person should have a right for free choice, but then I was sorry for Ruth, Roger tired her out, she didn’t understand what was happening. The epithet â€Å"exhausted† demonstrates her state brightly. At last Ruth revolted. She asked Roger if he wanted to marry her. There was an unaccustomed hardness in her voice, but it didn’t affect the gentleness of his reply. Roger persuaded her that they would be married the very moment they found a suitable house. Ruth took to her bed. She didn’t want to see Roger, but he was as ever assiduous and gallant.Every day he sent her flowers, wrote that he had some more houses to look at. The epithets â€Å"assiduous†, â€Å"gallant† display his dissimulation. A week passed and he received the letter: Ruth let him know that she was going to get married and claimed that Roger didn’t love her. He answered that her news shattered him, but her happiness had to be his first consideration. He sent Ruth seven orders to view. He was quite sure she would find among them a house that would exactly suit her. So, we can see that Roger appeared to be very smart and sly person.He appeared quite cute to predict Ruth’s following actions. When he got the hang of Ruth, he pretended he was still in love very gallantly, until she got the hang of him, and I should say it was a more civilized way of jilting a woman than just to leave her. So, I think the message of the story is that a woman can be sly and scheming, but a man can make it his way also. This story carried me with its eternal intrigue – the war between male and female. We may be in earnest about it or may try to ignore it, but it really takes place and this problem will exist until the end of human history.

Double Blind Randomized Controlled Trial

Double Blind Randomized Controlled Trial The controlled and randomized double blind trials refer to a situation in which a medicine investigator is not familiar with the nature of a drug. The term may also mean that a scientist does not realize that a drug is being tested maybe for certain diseases. Such medicines may be under surveillance, and they are only administered in a small prescribed amount in case of any side-effects. For a typical scientific research, the desires, expectations and beliefs can subconsciously influence, often, how people perceive things.In clinical research and preliminary psychology, these values are broadly recognized, thus explaining the rationale on why studies from subjects are regularly carried out under both blind and double blind situations. There is irresistible empirical support, which reveals that the expectation and attitude of experimenters can actually have a great impact on the result of experiments (Schulz & Grimes, 2002). In a situation invo lving single-blind experiments, an examiner is not able to distinguish between different samples of treatment.However, when human beings are concerned, such as in experimental psychology and medicine, double-blind events can be used to watch against the anticipation of both investigators and their subjects. For instance, in a double-blind clinical trial, tablets of drugs may be administered to patients. Neither patients nor researchers are conscious of such experiments, and the principal placebo effects typically take place during trials. At this stage, both physicians and patients consider a powerful new treatment is being tested.The static tablets are liable to work like the cure being considered, and can even provoke its distinctive consequences. Similarly, experimenter expectation effects are recognized in experimental psychology, and also turn up in researches on animal activities (Schulz & Grimes, 2002). In a captivating historical description, Schulz and Grimes (2002) have re vealed that blind evaluation first commenced towards the end of the 18th century as an instrument for fraud discovery mounted by influential typical scientists and doctors to dispute the alleged fantasies or charlatanism of exceptional drug.Some of the initial researches were made to assess mesmerism, and were strictly performed with blindfolds. The application of blind evaluation had been implemented by the 19th century by homeopaths, and by early 14th century, was regulated by psychical investigators and psychologists. However, in the 1930s, the capacity of blind methods merged with no-cure control group in medical tests was broadly acknowledged by a majority of health researchers, and just subsequent to World War II did blind tests in unsystematic controlled assessment became a typical and normative procedure.In medication and psychology, blind testing began as prevention against the unconventional, but its universal significance has been renowned for orthodox study; it has been internalized. While examiners in unorthodox medical and their incredulous columnists have been conscious of the likely impacts of anticipation and credence for over two hundred years, and conventional health explorers and psychologists for decades, this knowledge ha spread extensively throughout the scientific society.The beliefs and prospects in other experimenters in other branches of science seem to be ignored. There appears to be an implicit supposition that scientists in conventional grounds of study are resistant to the broad code that values, needs and prospects can control, frequently subconsciously, how we view and deduce things (Schulz & Grimes, 2002). This published report in the scientific literature evaluates how often blind measures were used in diverse branches of science.University science sectors were requested to explain whether obscure methodologies were trained or experimented upon. The outcome discloses that blind methodologies are seldom if ever accomplished or trained in any of the three sciences. The use of blind measures in various branches of science presents a gauge of the significance researchers in that area join to experimenter impacts.